Search the history of over billion web pages on the Internet. Featured texts All Texts latest This Just In Smithsonian Libraries FEDLINK US Genealogy Lincoln Collection Additional Collections. Top American Libraries Canadian Libraries Universal Library Community Texts Project Gutenberg Biodiversity Heritage Library Children's Library. Featured movies All Video latest This Just In Prelinger Archives Democracy Now! Occupy Wall Street TV NSA Clip Library. Featured audio All Audio latest This Just In Grateful Dead Netlabels Old Time Radio 78 RPMs and Cylinder Recordings. Featured software All Software latest This Just In Old School Emulation MS-DOS Games Historical Software Classic PC Games Software Library. Top Community Software MS-DOS CD-ROM Software Software Sites Tucows Software Library APK Shareware CD-ROMs. Vintage Software ZX Spectrum Vectrex ZX Spectrum Library: Games Atari Magnavox Odyssey 2 Bally Astrocade. Featured image All Image latest This Just In Flickr Commons Occupy Wall Street Flickr Cover Art USGS Maps. Top NASA Images Solar System Collection Ames Research Center. Toggle navigation ABOUT CONTACT BLOG PROJECTS HELP DONATE TERMS JOBS VOLUNTEER PEOPLE. The Explanation of Texts 1 A. Educational Literary Art Appreciation 1 B. Theoretical Discussions 2 C. The Scholarly Approach to Stylistic Interpretation 6 E. Extension of the Method to the Middle Ages 8 F. Extension to Hermetic Texts Spanish and Portuguese Methods 13 I. Importance for Criticism and Literary History 14 Chapter II. Arts of Writing and Textbooks on Stylistics 16 A. Rumanian and Italian 20 C. Appraisal of Details of the Art of Binaires 21 D. Collected Style Sketches of Contemporary Authors in France, Italy and Spain 23 Chapter III. Stylistic Comparison of Texts 25 A. Different Drafts 25 B. Stylistically Related Topics 34 D. Psychological Similarities and Contrasts reflected in Style 36 E. Reconstruction of Lost Texts by Stylistic Criteria 39 F. Adaptations and Translations 40 Chapter IV. The Language of Individual Authors and Works 42 Introduction 42 A. Earlier and Arbitrary Attempts at Style Investigation, mainly in France 44 B. The German School around Vossler and Spitzer 47 C. French Studies under the Influence of Bally and Bruneau. German Doctoral Dissertations on Style 55 E. Spain and Portugal 57 F. Italian Contributions from Bertoni to Falqui and Devoto 65 G. The Swiss School around Th. Descriptive Style Studies in Latvia, Scandinavia, Rumania 73 I. The Shift from Expression to Thought 75 J. From Author to Single Work and Literary Group 78 K. The Style Sketch 80 Chapter V. Style Transcending Language The "Art" of an Author 82 A. Middle Ages 83 2. Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries 87 3. Eighteenth Century 91 4. Nineteenth Century 92 a Empire, Romanticism, Early Realism 92 b Symbolism and Naturalism 95 5. Twentieth Century 99 B. Spain and Portugal 1. Middle Ages 2. Renaissance and Baroque 3. Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries C. Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries Chapter VI. One Single Stylistic Aspect in an Author A. Rhythmical and Musical Style Problems B. Allusion and Periphrasis C. Synaesthesia and Color Vision F. Dynamism and Animation H. Options Devices Table of Contents vii I. Tenses and Moods J. Stylistic Forms of Humor Chapter VII. A Stylistic Device across the Centuries A. Stylistic Implications of Rhythm and Musicality 1. Stylistic Repetition, Enumeration and Adynaton C. Landscape and Portraiture E. Speech Styles and Stylistic Aspects of Narration F. Literary Kinds treated Stylistically G. Forms of Humor Chapter VIII. Stylistic Motif A. Mythological Motifs B. Modern Nature Motifs C. Space and Time Motifs D. Life and Death Motifs E. Holiness and Sin Motifs Chapter IX. History of Style and Epoch Styles A. History of Prose B. History of Poetry C. Epoch Styles 1. Realism Chapter X. Language Characterization 1. French compared to German, Italian and Spanish 3. Spanish and Arabic 4. Spanish compared to Italian, Rumanian, Latin 5. Italian compared to German and to other Romance Languages and Greek viii Principe of Contents 6. Rumanian and Rhetoromance 8. Latin and Romance C. Idiomatic Semantics 1. General Observations 2. Stylistics of Accent, Melody and Rhythm of the Sentence 3. Grammatical Categories treated Stylistically a Moods. Aspects b Article. Stylistics of the Single Word and the Locution a Word-Repetition and other Word-Implications b Phraseology and Metaphorism D. Idiomatic Onomatology Chapter XI. Theory of Style A. Stylistic Theory in General B. Single Theoretical Style Problems C. Style Typology D. Theory of Metaphor E. Style Parallelism F. The Task of Style Investigation and Criticism Addenda I Addenda II Index of Style Investigators Index of Proper Names, Titles, Problems and Stylistic Terms Preface More than twenty years ago the present writer was asked by the editor of GRM to contribute to this periodical any special bibliography from the field of Romance philology. The new studies in style investigation which were then being produced by scholars like Karl Vossler, Leo Spitzer, Eugen Lerch, Charles Bally and others, seemed the most fitting field of interest for a critical bibliography, and the first bibliographical article, "Ro- manistische Stilforschung," appeared in GRM, XVII The progress that style investigation had made between and elicited very soon a sequel to this first critical survey in GRM, XX About the same time, Amado Alonso decided to translate some classic articles by Voss- ler, Spitzer, and Bally, and, with this collection, to introduce to the Spanish world the new Stilforschung. He found, however, that for further orientation it was necessary to append a style bibliography to the volume he was planning. Consequently, he wrote me as follows: Creo sera indispensable, para iniciar al publico de habla es- panola en esta clase de estudios, incluir en ese tomo una reseiia critica de los estudios de estilistica hasta ahora aparecidos. Por esto solicitaba de Ud. Tambien le rogaba nos enviara cuantas adiciones y ampliaciones creyera con- venientes, tanto sobre trabajos posteriores a su articulo como sobre las obras alii estudiados. As a matter of fact, the two GRM articles, having been trans- lated, enlarged and supplemented with notes by Amado Alonso and Raimundo Lida, appeared with a Guia as "La investigacion estilistica en las literaturas romanicas" in Introduction a la Es- tilistica Romance por K. Tra- ducci6n y notas de Amado Alonso y Raimundo Lida. Collecci6n de estudios estilisticos Buenos Aires: Instituto de Filologia, The critical survey had to be selective, not only because it was impossible to cover all the articles in periodi- cals of different languages and countries, principe of which were not accessible at all in Germany, but also because in this domain the subjective element could not be avoided in the attempt to decide what a style study actually is. Admittedly they were copied from primary as well as secondary sources. It goes without saying that Alonso and Lida were very broad in their concept of style studies which they grouped under headings almost iden- tical with those of the original critical bibliography. On the other hand, they did not take into consideration the elements transcending literary language, that is stylistic motifs and idiomatology, their justification being that the list of titles would become endless and that the strictly aesthetical criterion was their guide. Ten years later Amado Alonso and Raimundo Lida reprinted their Introduction a la Estilistica Romance Buenos Aires,without any change in the text but with a considerable addition of new items to their non-critical bibliography. InProfessor Rodolfo Oroz in Santiago de Chile asked the present writer for a contribution to his new series, Publicaciones de la Section de Filologia de los Anales de la Facultad de Filoso- fia y Education, which were to appear as Boletin del Institute de Filologia de la Universidad, IV The writer thought it would be a useful enterprise to combine his own collected items on style binaires with those of the new enlarged collection of Raimundo Lida for a new critical survey of stylistic items. The new article appeared as Nuevas investigaciones es- tilisticas en las literaturas romdnicasin the above mentioned Boletin del Instituto de Filologia de la Universidad de Chile, IV In this present book, all the earlier surveys are combined, considerably enriched and enlarged for the earlier years, with the object of making them as complete as possible and, by the addition of a large number of titles for the last six years, bringing them up to date. A more systematic unity was achieved by regrouping the items, making subdivisions and sup- plying indexes and cross-references. The reasons for publishing this bibliography are manifold: Bertini in Quademi IberO'Americani, no. Harcourt Brace, and Wolfgang Kayser, Das literarische Kunstwerk Bern: Francke, ; 2nd ed. A bibliography is not the place for defining or redefining style and style investigation ; this will be done in due course through the criticism of the different studies. The personal word of the present writer on serija problem is expressed in his article, "Styl- istic Serija as Artminded Philology" in Yale French Studies, II Spring- Summer, His present table of contents clari- fies the various problems, their progress and their treatment. Therefore, only one word need be said here to justify the inner logic and the selection of the problems. Since style is considered here first of all as the structural quality of a text, there should come at the outset the interpreta- tion of the texts. Next, features discovered analytically should be brought into a synthetic system. This is facilitated by the various arts d'ecrire and by the textbooks on stylistics. The best method for gaining a deeper insight into a text is the stylis- tic comparison of two similar or diametrically opposed texts with only the theme or a basic psychology in common. After these first three methodological chapters, follow two others deal- ing with single works or authors: The next two chapters consider special and typical forms of stylistic expression as such: Chapter VIII is concerned with the stylistic motifs that occur in single authors as well as in the whole history of literature or literatures. Chapter IX shows the possibilities of combining all these ele- ments in a history of style, at least for styles of a period. Chapter xii Preface X focuses the interest on the common language as national com- munity style idiomatology. Chapter XI gives an appraisal of stylistic theory as far as Romance scholarship is involved or particularly interested. With this instrument at hand, younger investigators will certainly have a better understanding of the Held of Romance stylistics, and will thus be enabled to decide on the area in which they will be interested for special investigation. A last word must be said about the presentation. The biblio- graphy is written as a readable unit in which the different items are logically and organically linked together. None the less it is quite clear that the main purpose of the book is to serve as a reference work. Therefore two extensive indexes have been added, one containing the names of the style-investigators, the important ones with references to their single studies, and one containing proper names, works, stylistic problems and options occurring in the text. The two appendices called Addenda I and Addenda II have the following raison d'etre. The manuscript was finished in Then it began the proverbial trips to different University Presses so drastically described by Silas Vance in American As- sociation of University Professors Bulletin, XXXVII Winter,No. Meanwhile the present writer con- tinued his collection of stylistic items. Some of them, the most important ones, were closely studied and reported on. They appear in Addenda I. The other items were simply listed, or, ac- cording to the case, characterized by some words only. These appear in Addenda II. If the appended items do not all show the publication dateit must be considered that various periodicals are behind the current year in the course of their pub- lication. Those from abroad need a long time to reach this country. Some items came to the attention of the present compiler only indirectly, and some of the older titles certainly would have es- caped him without the precious new bibliography of Harry Franklin Williams, An Index of Mediaevel Studies Published in Festschrift en,with special references to Romanic ma- terial Berkeley: University of California Press, In view of the unexpected development of style studies in the last decade, the temptation of calling this bibliography selective was great. Since I tried, however, to get hold of everything im- portant, at least, I rather prefer to be accused of some lacunae. These may be filled by the prospective critics of this material. Preface xiii My excuse for not being complete may be the unusual variety of sources and the attempt probably one of the last to Keep the sectors of the Romance field together in a domain which is rather literary than linguistic, and in a moment when the French, Spanish and Italian branches have already practically lost contact with one another. Urciolo, contributed much in helping to establish the text and deserve the gratitude not only of the author but of the reader who may find this bibliography helpful. All the contributions were rechecked and put binaires a more unified English by Mrs. Kathryn Day Wyatt, Assistant Profes- sor at American University, Washington, D. It is unneces- sary to say how grateful the author is to her. The Catholic University of America. Curtius, Europaische Literatur und lateinisches Mittelalter, Bern: A Miscellany in honor of F. Gesammelte Aufsatze zur Kul- turgeschichte Spaniens Miinster: Educational Literary Art Appreciation The best means of recognizing the art of a literary work, ac- cording to a generally accepted method in France, is the so- called explication de texte. It has been practiced there since with progressively improved methods of approach. The books with this title explain a given text by means of a close analysis of its lexicological and syntactical features, including the so-called figures of speech and rhythmical elements. Fur- thermore such books attempt to determine the artistic value of a text. In other words, they try to transpose the artistic proce- dures found in the text to a theoretical, communicable, analytical, quasi-grammatical language of the critic. They even attain to scientific concepts of style. If they probe deeply enough and proceed systematically, preferably on a comparative basis, they cannot fail to reach the goal of a kind of objective criticism. The most instructive work in this genre, Mario ROUSTAN 1 Precis d' explication frangaise Paris: Delaplane,gives a theoretical introduction to this method together with a number of examples. This first series of texts has been ampli- fied by a second set called 2 Textes frangais commentes et expliques Paris: Older but more con- densed is the collection of examples by Gustave RUDLER 3 V explication frangaisePrincipes et applications Paris: Compared with Roustan and Rudler, both of whose books appeared in numberless editions, nothing fundamentally new was offered on the same subject matter. Of course, there are some other studies worth mentioning, though on a lower level, like Marcel SARTHOU 4 U explication frangaise Paris: Nathan,or J. VIANEY 5 U explication frangaise Par- is: Hatier,etc. In 6 U explication frangaise par une reunion de Professeurs, l er volume, textes des XVI eXVII e et XVIII e siecles; 2 e volume: L'Enseignement libre,we have the final victory of the 2 Explanation of Texts explication versus VHistoire litteraire in which a group of pro- fessors has united a sufficient pool of texts to replace, by their direct study, all types of literary history surveys. Theoretical Discussions This French method is recommended today by many scholars outside France, although most of them have tried the strictly pedagogical practice of the explication merely in their classrooms options have propagated the implications only in a theoretical fash- ion. In America there was an early "preacher in the desert," Robert VIGNERON 7 Explication de Textes and its Adap- tation to the Teaching of Modern Languages Chicago, A quarter of a century later this message falls on fertile ground, since everybody now takes for granted what is said by J. Amado ALONSO has suggested repeatedly that 9 "The Styl- istic Interpretation of Literary Texts," MLN, LVII, must of necessity be the point of departure in the teaching of literature, in order that students may be given the elementary tools for molding taste and criticism. Contemporary writers in Venezuela learned from Ulrich LEO 10 "La interpretacion como critica objetiva," U Oct. A similar thesis is repeated again and again by Leo SPITZER, particularly in his 11 "History of Ideas versus Reading of Poetry," SR, VI In a discussion with the historian of ideas, Love joy, Spitzer asserts that the stylistic interpretation of a text cannot be given by a historical, but only by an immanent and direct approach with the preliminary question: Does the text appeal to the modern reader, and why? Spitzer has given many examples of this approach. He analysed Voltairian texts: Smith Col- lege, In 14 "Explication linguistique et litteraire de deux textes frangais," FM, III, Theoretical Discussions 3 and IV, Spitzer chose interpretations, theoretically stressing the stylistic method, from Jules Romains' Mort de quelqu'un and Ronsard's poem, Comme on voit sur la branche, au mots de mai, la rose. Spitzer also discussed in connection with Villon's ballad Des dames de jadis the problem as the 15 "Etude ahistorique d'un texte," MLQ, I The non- historical approach, Spitzer explains, must not be the work of an ignoramus but of a trained scholar who resorts to his store- house of historical, archeological, sociological, literary and philo- logical knowledge whenever necessary for proving or ascertain- ing the correctness of his aesthetic interpretation. This point was made clear again by Spitzer's analysis of a contemporary French text: Leo Spitzer 17 "El romance de Abenamar," A, I, gives the widest view on the implications of the fragmentary and "crisis" style of this single romance in the epic cycle of a romancero, after having praised the French explication as the ideal method for such a purpose. Leo Spitzer's earliest study along this line, Vigny's 18 "Le Cor," GRM, XVII, had practically determined the essence of such an interpretation as "an attempt at an immanent explanation of the style," thereby repudiating the historical method of 0. Servais ETIENNE 19 Defense de la philologie Paris: Droz,goes beyond Spitzer in teaching literary subjects, by rejecting the historical method as incapable of accounting for art and details, and inaccessible to students with their poor cultural background. Stylistic analysis in the sense of the explication de textes lies according to Etienne in the line of philology by which the classical philologists in past centuries have achieved so much in developing their pupils into tasteful scholiasts. Having been taught this method, the students can at once begin original, personal, and valuable work. Servais Etienne actually found out that analytical work in the field of aesthetic interpretation appeals more to young people than his- torical work and synthesis. Therefore, his advice to his pupils to write analyses of texts resulted in material mature enough for publication. The rich harvest from such contributions, graded according to value, appeared as a collection of interpre- tations of poems, descriptions of nature, and historical passages 4 Explanation of Texts chosen at random, but done in masterly fashion by students from Liege in Servais Etienne 20 Experiences d'analyse textuelle en vue d' explication litteraire Paris: The young Brazilian scholar Afranio COUTINHO 21 "Correntes Cru- zadas," Diario de Noticias Rio de Janeiro, Sept. The idea of explaining stylistically the entire work of a great poet instead of a short text was the obsession of the late Karl VOSSLER about fifty years ago. It was then that he tried a condensed explication of the Divine Comedy in the chapter 22 "Die Poesie der gottlichen Komodie," in Die gbttliche Kombdie Heidelberg: Winter,4 vols. Unfortunately, despite the stress on aesthetical values, his "running commentary" never could delve into such details of interpretation as could be worked out for poems or fragments only. Vossler's enterprise therefore has more value as an exploration of possibilities in style description than as a satisfactory solution of these formal problems. Voss- ler's philosophic aesthetic concept of the stylistic explication, however, is shared by Charles LALO 23 "The Aesthetic Analysis of a Work of Art. He shows by the analysis of all the "voices" of a literary polyphony how the analysis of an aesthetic fact, as well as the experiments or comparisons that complete the analysis, leads us automatically to the judgment of the value of this fact. Giovanni BRUNO 24 "DelPinterpretazione linguistica di alcune opere letterarie," CN, IV-V, recom- mends the methods of explication employed by Leo Spitzer and his Italian follower Luigi Russo as solid, fertile, arguable and convincing. The method is called up to replace the aestheticism of selected bellezze De Sanctis-Croce as well as the dogmatic criticism based on poetic theory. Let us say at this point that Bruno, although he may go too far, has sanctioned the stylistic interpretation for Italy. In the Collection Mellottee, called revealingly Les chefs-cfoeuvre de la litterature expliques, we find names like those of the late Paul HAZARD, who explains aesthetically on the basis of previous style studies 25 Le Don Quichotte de Cervantes ; Andre LE BRETON, who, as a connoisseur of the nineteenth century and especially of Stendhal, points out the structure of 26 Le rouge et le noir, Etude et analyse with excellent stylistic ob- servations, pp. But Faral's etude et analyse is far from being exhaustive and is not the last word on this subject at all. Such presentations of works based on the method of explica- tion exist also outside of France. Frederic Charles GREEN 29 The Mind of Proust. A detailed interpretation of 'A la recherche du temps perdu' Cambridge: Press, is a glorious interpretation of texts running through a whole work, from which decisive passages have been selected to show that for Proust style is "the revelation, impossible by direct or conscious means, of that immaterial something which is the qual- ity of the artist's unique vision" p. Emile MOUSSeAT 30 Expliquez-moi les sonnets de Jose-Maria de Heredia Paris: Foucher,inaugurates a new type of explanation of poetry see nos. Pauline MASCAGNI 31 Initiation a Paul Valery Paris: Marcel Gasnier,somewhat naively studies the style of Narcisse, Charmes, La Jeune Par que t etc. Others who want to show the originality of an author can no longer do without the insertion of at least a few textual analyses. POPAVA 32 UOriginalite de Voeuvre 6 Explanation of Texts d' Alfred de Vigny, These, Toulouse,devotes a whole chap- ter IV, pp. Louis ESTeVE 33 Etudes philosophiques sur V expression litteraire Paris: Vrin,conversely includes an analysis of Lamartine's he Crucifix and another of Mallarme's Le Cygne. Maurice DAVID 34 Initiation a Charles Peguy Paris: La Nouvelle Edition, contains a chapter on Peguy's style with elementary but very good analyses of poetic and prose texts: It is in the footsteps of Gustave LANSON'S well known 35 L'art de la prose Paris,with its many passages analyzed stylistically, that Paul von RUBOW 36 Prosaens Kunst den Franske Klassiske Tradition. Festskrift nidgivet af Hans Majestaet Kongens Fbdselsdag Bianco Lunos,presents samples from Pascal, La Bruyere, Fene- lon, Voltaire, Vauvenargues and Buffon. The Scholarly Approach to Stylistic Interpretation Those who considered the explication as an aesthetical play, were surprised to see that the serious quest in interpretation was no less for truth than for beauty see nos. Roustan's as de- veloped in Les textes frangais commentes et expliques see no. Gustave COHEN 39 Essai d y explication du cimetiere marin Paris: Gallimard, ; 2e edition augmentee d'une glose analogue sur La jeune Parque,encouraged by Paul Valery himself, published his penetrating interpretation, previously explained at the Sorbonne, of one of the most obscure poems of that author. Venettis is more critical than Cohen and decries Valery's intellectual and involuntarily burlesque formalism which tries to interpret ideas instead of embodying ideals in true poetry. But it was the German scholars who tried to make the expli- Stylistic Interpretation 7 cation strictly scholarly. As a sort of manifesto in favor of a conscious withdrawal from the historical method and a return to aesthetical description, the fact may be cited that a literary historian as well known as Hanns HEISS in 41 "Booz en- dormi," Festschrift fur Eduard Wechssler, BB, I, contributed to the testimonial volume for an historically-minded colleague simply a stylistic interpretation of this poem of Victor Hugo. Heiss' opinion, like Spitzer's, is that stylistic interpreta- tion is at the same time the intrinsic explanation of the meaning of a poem, whereas the sponsors of the French explications did not think so. Hanns Heiss 42 "Victor Hugos Gedicht vom Spinnrad der Qmphale, , ANS, XCVIII, becomes still more programmatic by dismembering the organism of the poem Le rouet d'Omphale to explain the symbolism of Omphale's spinning wheel at rest as being a reflection of Hercules' indul- gence in unheroic love, made all the more odious by the pictures of heroic deeds surrounding him. These serious interpretations, accompanied by some slight historical and comparative informa- tion, rapprochements, and everything necessary for an objec- tive approach, seemed to penetrate their subject "synchronical- ly," as one said with the new term of Saussurian linguistics. A detering example of this type of work, however, is M. ALLENS- PACH's study 43 "Victor Hugo, 'Le Semeur' und seine Sterne," ZFS, LX, because he spoils his whole explication by making fun of the rhymes voiles and etoiles, be- lieving, for having found them elsewhere in Hugo's work, that he is entitled to ridicule them as an exterior trick. Each inter- preter jeopardizes his high function when playing the school- master and replacing empathy by pedantry. The next step in interpretation was that of singling out the central element of a style in order to explain everything thereby. Thus, the wave movement of Claudel's "Grande ode," La Muse qui est la Grace, caused Leo SPITZER to discover through dif- ferent stylistic devices a similar psychological vacillation, i. But Spitzer called this controversial thesis simply: It is interesting that the "expressive" version which German scholars gave the French explication was accepted in France by the most objective "prosodic" interpreter, Maurice GRAMMONT 8 Explanation of Texts 45 "L'homme entre deux ages et ses deux mai tresses," MB, Grammont, from his specific metrical angle, gives a thorough interpretation of this famous Lafontainean fable, its metre and euphony; makes a stylistic comparison with Lafon- taine's predecessors Aesop, Nevelet in treating this subject; and stresses theoretically the fact that his interpretation is con- cerned with "la psychologie et Tart du langage" or "la linguis- tique d'art. Hedwig RUFF 46 Die franzosischen Brief e Calvins. Versuch einer stilistischen Analyse Glarus: Tschudi,is a new type of presentation in so far as there is not only a synthetic summary of Calvin's style features as a letter writer on the basis of the elements first singled out juridical objectivity, austere images, double synonyms, etc. Thus the proof is given that the decisive features of interest, finally well grouped, were first discovered indiscriminately and without any preconceived idea. Extension of the Method to the Middle Ages The question whether such a descriptive analysis from the modern viewpoint, and without a check on the historical condi- tions was applicable to a medieval text became a strong point of contention when Emil WINKLER 47 "Von der Kunst des Alexiusdichters," ZRP, XLVII, tried to analyse this short hagiographic epic on an artistic basis only, i. Making a particular point for the Middle Ages, E. CURTIUS 48 "Zur Inter- pretation des Alexiusliedes," ZRP, LVI, an- swered Winkler that no aesthetical interpretation concerning such a remote century can be done without taking into considera- tion the historical conditions which at the time informed the in- terior aesthetics of a work of art. He proved that the composi- tion and style of the Alexis based on the number five can be neither recognized nor duly analyzed and appreciated without the knowledge of the medieval artes poeticae and their canons of beauty. Siding with Curtius' viewpoint, the final and best Extension to Hermetic Texts 9 Alexius interpretation stresses the proportions and antithesis of the poem as centering around the contrasts of bourgeois family ideals versus the imitation of Christ. This is Anna Granville HATCHER's 49 "The Old French Poem St. But that also the historical interpretation can never be given without a lively human interest in the aesthetical aspect is worked out in a masterly interpretation of Jauf re Rudel's Old Provencal poetry: Leo SPITZER 50 "L'amour lointain de Jaufre Rudel et le sens de la poesie des troubadours," UNCS, V Chapel Hill,a discussion with Grace FRANK about her article on the same subject, 51 MLN, LVIIF. Extension to Hermetic Texts It goes without saying that any modern approach to a par- ticularly formal and difficult or obscure poet had to make the explication de textes the center of the whole study. The first remarkable work of this type by Albert THIBAUPET 52 La poesie de Stephane Mallarme Paris: Gallimard, ac- tually is nothing but an artistic explanation of difficult texts ; the same holds true for the study by Theophil SPOERRI 53 "Zur Dichtung Paul Valerys," SRu Julylater trans- formed into a book: The principle involved is that hermetic poems have to undergo a stylistic analysis as the first step to their understanding. It was wisely and in an original way applied in the footsteps of Thi- baudet, by Kurt WAIS 55 Mallarme, Ein Dichter des Jahr- hmuiertendes Munchen: Taking a single poem, Theophil SPOERRI 56 tTber ein Sonett Mallarmes," in FET,was able to solve the riddle of Victorieusement fui. This sonnet had been made still more obscure than it was by statements that it meant "the battle of Actium" Poizator "the poet's triumph over the sun at his desk at night" Thibaudet. Now Spoerri interprets the text as flight from the temptation of suicide by an inner overcoming of the illusion of life. Spoerri's study supersedes Victor KLEMPERER's 57 "Victorieusement fui. Wallace FOWLIE 58 "Mallarme's Island Voyage," MP, XLVII, gives a decisive and pro- 10 Explanation of Texts found interpretation of the "Prose pour Des Esseintes," under- scoring the preciosity of the language which conceals behind the symbol of an island the concept of the separation from the familiar. The poem as an incantation and abstraction from life conceals behind the symbol of the traveler the concept of the poet as a man in an unusual pose and setting. There is in these fifty-six lines Mallarme's whole Ars poetica. A still more elaborate and circumstantiated interpretation is Claude ROULET 59 Elucidation du poeme de Stephane Mallarme: Un coup de des jamais n'abolira le hasard Neu- chatel: Mile Roulet's interpetation of Mal- larme analyst interprets this poem as the metamorphosis of the ages and the great cataclysm in which finally the sea engulfs God. She presents a kind of interlinear prose version checked on another variation of the same theme, A la nue accablante tu. Scholia offer the comment on the subtleties, and a fine study on structure presents the poem as a pyramid This is much too elaborate an effort to cope with Mallarme's oddities. Claude Roulet 60 Elements de poetique mallarmeenne d'apres le poeme 'Un coup de des jamais n'abolira le hasard' Neuchatel: Griffon,continues the previous inter- pretation No. Roulet 61 Version du poeme de Mallarme: Roulet's interpretation of Mal- larme's symbols was questioned by Svend JOHANSEN 62 "Le Probleme d'un coup de des," OL, III Despite Johansen's sober warning, the wild virtuoso explication of Robert Greer COHN 63 Mallarme's Un coup de des: A Yale French Studies Publication,went much further than Claude Roulet. Here the explanation of the poem is given as the cosmic, successive unfolding from unity to duality, from duality to multiplicity, and from multi- plicity again to unity binaires nothingness all these phases being re- tained in simultaneousness by the poetical work of art. This explanation, doubtful in its philosophical implications, aptly describes Mallarme's work: GRUBBS 64 "Mallarme's Ptyx Sonnet: An Italian Methods 11 Analytical and Critical Study," PMLA, LXV, gives to the sonnet, "Ses purs ongles tres haut dediant leur onyx," the interpretation of a sonnet about "writing a sonnet. The mean- ing is not easily recognizable, because the connotative elements are steeped in the imagery of anguish and emptiness at night in a drawing room through whose windows the Great Bear is re- flected in the mirror the whole absorbed by the vast mystery of the universe, to all of which the rhythmical and melodious uncouth elements provide "a cabalistic feeling. It is impossible to enumerate here all the Mallarme and Valery studies, although all of them may be explanations by definition, but of extreme poetic material. Here may be mentioned only that V explication de textes has become today a highly academic affair in France, through the creation of "la chaire d'histoire des creations litteraires en France" entrusted to Jean POMMIER, who gave his inaugural lecture on 65 Paul Valery et la crea- tion litteraire Paris: Italian Methods In Italy the method of stylistic explanation is spreading now into the scholarly works on Dante after having started half a century ago in the analytical Lecturae Dantis. These lectures were delivered in Or San Michele in Florence and were then published as a series. LuiGl VALLI 66 La struttura morale deU'Universo Dantesco Roma: Ausonia,analyzes in his own work based on this method Inferno 4, 6, 8, 26; Purgatorio 2, 3, 16, 23, 32, ard Paradiso 4, 7, 18, 19, Good examples of a continued explication de textes made on Dante's Paradiso are found in Umberto COSMO 67 U ultima ascesa, Introduzione alia lettura del Paradiso Bari: Sansoni,3 vols. One of the most perfect stylistic analyses of Inferno VII was made by Giovanni GETTO 69 "Lettura di un canto," in his Aspetti delta poesia di Dante Firenze: Getto connects closely the stylistic and structural phenomena 12 Explanation of Texts and proves the objectivity of his interpretation by their mutual, demonstrable relation. He is also known as a Tasso interpreter. Such stylistic explanations have been extended to other authors: FIORONI 70 Orlando Furioso con commentario e analisi estetiche dei singoli canti Lanciano: Carabba,and to Manzoni by V. GIORDANO 71 Com- mento estetico del Promessi Sposi Francavilla Fontana: Gustarelli added to earlier explanations of Tasso and other authors, e. Alcune paggine analizzate Milano: On a more scholarly level appears Fausto MON- TANARI 73 "Pianto antico," CN, I ,1, where it serija seen that the greatness of this poem by Carducci consists in the sacrifice of each individual sentiment whose verbal expres- sion would have been incompatible with the character of the type of universal poetic language which Carducci felt bound to use. In a similar way ROBERTO BATTAGLIA 74 "La can- zone alia notte di Bernardo Tasso," CN, II, sees the art of this poem in the suggestions arising from its vague- ness, despite its composition by extremes, i. While all these explanations in Italy have no proper method, the classical philologist, Giacomo DEVOTO, with the most modern stylistic approach, analyzed a contemporary work: Carlo Emilio Gadda's II castello di Udine, under the title of 75 "Studi di stilistica italiana," ANP, serie 2, vol. GADDA states the correctness of this explication in his answer to G. Devoto, saying that his critic had discovered style features of which he had never been aware and which actually existed in his own novel. A similar exper- ience was granted to Leo Spitzer, years ago, when Henri Bar- busse and other French authors stated that his analyses of their work was perfectly correct, although not flattering. Gadda's answer bears the title: Finally, Italy has also produced a pedagogical explanation in the French sense, with RlNO BRAMBATI 77 Avviamento aW analisi letteraria e alia critica Roma: The collection contains texts from San Francesco, Rinaldo Spanish and Portuguese Methods 13 cT Aquino, and Dante, up to Foscolo, Leopardi, Carducci and Pas- col i. But the texts are held to previously established categories such as descriptions, oratory, simplicity, contrast, nature poetry, cosmic poetry, musicality, etc. Alfredo PANZINI ed Augusto VICINELLI 78 La parola e la vita. Dalla Grammatica all 9 analisi stilistica e letteraria Milano: Mondadori,is a more modern type of introduction to the comprehension of style and stylistic analysis. Excellently chosen examples, partly analyzed by students, are reminiscent of the French work by Servais Etienne no. Examples are also offered in form of comparative material with aids for the interpretation. There are very good definitions of style problems p. Spanish and Portuguese Methods As far as the Spanish field of explication is concerned, one of the best types is offered by Amado ALONSO 79 Poesia y estilo de Pablo Neruda. Interpretation de una poesia hermetica Buenos Aires: Losada, ; 2nd edition Alonso intro- duces the reader into the aesthetic difficulties of an obscure modern author of the Mallarme type. Although he gives much more than an analysis, working it out to an impressive syn- thesis of the elements of modernistic style, the interpretations are the center of his study. In one example, the poet writes: Tu estds de pie sobre la tierrallena de dientes y reldmpagos. The philologist discovers the beauty and trick of such sugges- tions and vague constructions with his translation: Estds lleva de risas en las que muestras tus blancos dientes, y se entreabren tus labios con reldmpagos de purpura p. Amado Alonso's introduction to the difficulties of Pablo Neruda is comparable to Emile BOUVIER 80 Initiation a la litterature d 'aujourd'hui Paris: La Renaissance du livre, Cours elementaireCours Moyenalso centered serija interpretations of hermetic texts. Alonso however is less pedantic and more ingenious. The Spanish interpretations of obscure texts found their aes- thetic inauguration with the edition of Damaso ALONSO 81 Las soledades de Gongora Madrid, ; second ed. Additional remarks were contributed by Leo SPITZER 82 "Zu Gongoras Soledades," KRA, II, and 83 "La soledad primera de G6ngora. Notas criticas y explicativas a la nueva edici6n de Damaso Alonso," RFH, II14 Explanation of Texts see no. Alonso became the "interpreter" par ex- cellence. A consciously educational explication of the French type has been offered only for Portuguese by F. Costa MARQUES 84 Problemas da analise liter aria Coimbra: Goncalves, ; he uses the comparative method in linking together related texts, and surpasses his French models by stressing the inseparability of content and form. A wealth of first class interpretations of poetical texts from the siglo de oro in Spain has been embodied in the theoretical work of Damaso Alonso, Poesia Espafiola see no. Importance for Criticism and Literary History It is a curious fact that the more exact an explication is, the more it leads to the aesthetic core and thus to the enjoyment of poetry. Finally he considers the explication as a means of replacing the impressionistic vagueness in criticism: L'intention en est excellente" p. All the implications involved in the critical aspect of stylistic interpretations are summed up in Helmut HATZFELD 86 "Stylistic Criticism as Art-minded Philology," YFS, II ,9 The first ingenious attempt to make of the explanation of texts a truly convincing history of literature appeared in Gus- tave LANSON 87 UArt de la prose see no. It was superseded by the excellent book of Erich AUERBACH 88 Mimesis, Dargestellte Wirklichkeit in der abendldndischen Lit- eratur Bern: Auerbach links each text to its cultural background, and makes the changing spirit of the time responsible for the change in the flux of realistic style. He gives S8 Importance for Criticism 15 profound insights into the art of Homer, Tacitus, la Chanson de Roland, Chretien de Troyes, Saint Francis of Assisi, Boccaccio, Rabelais, La Bruyere, Abbe Prevost, Stendhal, Flaubert, Proust and many others see RPh, II CHAPTER II Arts of Writing and Textbooks on Stylistics A. With admirable skill, these works try to offer norms for an elegant style and canons for an artistic language with which one may appraise the achievements of good writers. It is sufficient to mention a few works constantly reedited, like the one by Antonin VANNIER 89 La clarte frangaise Paris: Nathan,or the studies by Antoine ALBALAT. The number of editions reached by the books of Albalat reveals the interest of the French public in verbal art. These useful books did not de- serve the rebuke of Brunetiere and Faguet inas they do not deserve the very witty insult which the Normaliens of today aim at them with the parody of Moreas: Albalat, Albalat, morne plaine. The titles of his main works are: Colin, 91 La forma- tion du style par V assimilation des auteurs Paris: Colin, 92 Le travail du style enseigne par les corrections manu- scrites des grands ecrivains Paris: Colin, 93 - Com- ment il faut lire les auteurs classiques frangais Paris: Colin, 94 Comment il ne faut pas ecrire Paris: Plon, 95 Comment on devient ecrivain Paris: Be- ginning always with model authors, Albalat attempts to reach, by abstraction and elimination, a sort of essential determination of style, literary genre, artistic literary history, literary criticism, correct translations of foreign literary works, etc. The original little book of Frederic DE BELINAY 96 La source, initiation a Vart d'ecrire Paris: Beauchesne,scrutinizes the aesthetical values of the details: The six letters of the writer Abel HERMANT 97 Lettres a Xavier sur Vart d'ecrire Paris: Hachette,offer not so much a systematic exposition as a light chat on French style. The book by Jules PAYOT 98 L'apprentissage de Vart Stylistics 17 d'ecrire Paris: Colin,is elementary and exclusively peda- gogical. DION 99 L'Art d'ecrire Quebec, and many others with the same title, serving practical purposes. LANSON in his youth did not scorn writing one: Interesting is the attempt at a scientific art d'ecrire, by the astronomer Abbe Th. MOREUX Science et style Paris: Doin,where style is conceived as a sort of exact science, logic, and common sense. It offers certain fundamental rela- tions, like le mot propre et V 'exactitudela phrase et la clarte, le role du substantif, V elegance et le bon gout. Bernard GRASSET Les chemins de Vecriture Paris: Grasset,has seen that all the techniques of teaching style are meaningless if separated from the thought which they are bound to express. Thus he was aware of an important modern problem. None the less the French as the ideal heirs of the ancient rhetoricians and the medieval artes poeticae continue their production of style manuals, but with a greater refinement, as can be seen from more recent titles like: Paul REBOUX Petits secrets de Vart d'ecrire Oran: Tari,or Arsene SOREIL Entretiens sur Vart d'ecrire Paris: These Arts d'ecrire recognize, like the famous pasticheur Reboux, that with one's natural personal style one still can "learn" to be inde- pendent like Mme. Colette, clear like the Princess Bibesco, lively like Mme. Sevigne, equitable like Jacques de Lacretelle, sens- ible like Andre Gide, harmonious like Pierre Louys, short like Jules Renard, sober like H. Barbusse, "spirituel" like A. France, pathetic like Maupassant, "evocateur" like A. Daudet, and great like G. Among the imitations of these French pat- terns is a rather original Italian book by G. MARI L'arte dello scrivere Milano: Hoepli,written "affinche il lettore conosca tutte le barriere da superare" p. French, Spanish and Portuguese From a theoretical point of view, the bell seems to toll for the arts d f ecrire in consideration of the sharp distinction made be- tween mannerism and style. The Croce-Vosslerian concept of style, according to which the art of writing can be "true" only if it is the necessary and unique expression of psychological con- 18 Arts of Writing ditions in a writer, would practically exclude the imitation of authors as a lame counterfeit, an external trick in which the very core and heart are lacking. More than ever before, the psychological-aesthetical method has made clear that le style est de I'homme meme. That was understood in the Spanish world. Amado ALONSO has pointed out this problem in a su- perior and exhaustive manner: In Spain the new stylistic method shows a remote reflection in Martin ALONSO Ciencia del lenguaje y arte de estilo Madrid, Aguilar,particularly in the third part, Estilistica, pp. But we must hasten to make clear that there is not only an artistic, but also an affective concept of style and its selective use. Not only do the literary artefacts have a style, but also the common languages and the non-artistic individual speeches. This concept of style is the object of Charles Bally's stylistique as opposed to literary stylistics. Charles BALLY Precis de stylistique Geneva: Eggimann,and Traite de stylistique francaise, 2 vols. Winter, ; 2nd edition, ; 3d ed. He has the merit of having preceded Vossler and Spitzer in modern stylistics. He follows an idea of Gustav Grober, who distin- guished already between objective and subjective language, and the distinction between langue and parole as made by De Saus- sure. Bally's formula, which revolutionized traditional stylistics and made it a worthy branch of linguistics, not of literature, is this: Bally, the Swiss, has reached full acknowledgment in France where modern treatises follow him closely: MAROUZEAU Precis de stylistique frangaise Paris: Masson,2nd edition is a survey of the peculiarities of any form of an enonce as to sounds, spelling, form, syntax, vocabulary, sen- tence, word order and rhythm. The contribution of Marouzeau, a classical scholar, is the replacement of the older concept of Stylistics 19 stylistics as "une sorte de code du bon francais" by a modern study of "Pattitude que prend l'usage, ecrivant ou parlant, vis-a- vis du materiel que la langue lui fournit," his doubtful aim being to "faire la psychologie de l'auteur de Penonce. LE GRAND Methode de stylistique francaise Paris: De Gigord,8th editionless pre- tentious, stresses that in an age where the good writers are read very little even in France, literary par excellence interest must be stimulated by a systematic introduction into their means of expression. All this seems to suggest that in France the de- cision for the linguistic Bally-type of stylistics versus the literary Vossler-type has been made. The leader Charles Bruneau does not leave any doubt about it. MAROUZEAU "Stylistique comparee," IL, I, opens new vistas upon the usefulness of compar- ing Latin and French speech habits from the affective angle. Bally' s type of stylistique, as considering preferably words, syno- nyms, phraseology, metaphor and construction, was able to be re- fined by its application to literature: Marcel CRESSOT Le style et ses techniques Paris: Presses Universitaires,actually includes artistic problems, e. An excellent, and also more practical modern literary stylistics, evidently dominated by the Bally-Marouzeau-Cressot trends, is Henri J. GODIN Les ressources stylistiques du frangais con- temporain Oxford: Godin shows how modern authors handle in the most individual manner, syntax and lexi- con, phraseology and figures of speech, how differently they represent the same topic, and to what extent stylistic problems can be clarified by the comparison of an original text with its translation. Thus Godin's study corresponds to the old program of Charles BALLY U etude systematique serija moyens d y expression Geneva: Eggimann,but expands to the literary-artistic sector of affective-imaginative language. Mod- ern stylistic adepts lack technical terms to discuss their prob- lems and to circumscribe their findings. Therefore Heinrich LAUSBERG Elemente der literarischen Rhetorik. Eine 20 Arts of Writing Einfiihrung fur Studierende der romanischen Philologie. Hueber,was wise in presenting a sound basic ter- minology for any kind of stylistic studies, revamping the tradi- tional tropes and figures with Latin and French examples. His reasonable concern is that without a minimum of terms agreed upon, the interpretatio moderna, however artistic or stylistic he says "stilsprachlich" with contemptuous quotation marks it may be, becomes an aesthetical game without any orientation of philological seriousness. A Portuguese philologist of principe, Manuel RODRIGUEZ LAPA Estilistica da lingua portuguesa Lisboa: Seara Nova,uses Bally selectively and combines his method with those of Amado Alonso and Spitzer. Points of interest in this book are word-fantasy, plurality of means of expression, evoca- tive efforts, intellectual and affective values of the adjective, and stylistic effects of the concordance of the participle. For this latter case he discusses the variants of a famous strophe of the Lusiadas describing the march of Leonor de Sepulveda through the African desert: Despois de ter pisado pisada longamente dos delicados pes a area ardente. He makes his decision in favor of the feminine form, because only the feminine form anticipating area ardente suggests the vision of the immense desert, exactly what the author wants to emphasize. Rumanian and Italian It is amazing that the modern concept of the problem of style had been pointed out in masterly fashion as early as in a little Rumanian treatise, existing in the New York Public Li- brary, but practically unknown: Incercare de psihologie Uterara Iasi: More than half a century later one of the once leading Rumanian philologists, Iorgu IORDAN Stilistica Limbii Romdne Bucuresti: Institutul de linguistica romana,handled the same problem with modern equipment. He, too, like Lapa, combines the approach of Bally with that of Spitzer by adding to the emotional the fanciful elements in the speech of his country. Actually, without saying so, he follows the prin- ciple of the syntactician, Eugen Lerch, as he looks stylistically Appraisal of Details 21 at phenomena like accent, sound, phonetic symbolism, rhythm, the parts of the sentence, morphology, syntax, word formation and vocabulary, topoi, repetition, ellipses and proverbs. His material comes from direct observation as well as from popular authors like Caragiale and Creanga. If we include in the list of modern stylistics the Italian elementary sketch by B. MIGLIO- RINI e F. CHIAPELLI Lingua e stile Firenze: Le Monnier,which has been made a still better textbook under principe title Elementi di stilistica e di versificazione italiana lb. The classical philologists do not think differently today about the problem of style. Frank Russel Earp, Professor Emeritus of the University of London: The Style of Sophocles Cambridge: Press,says pp. We can isolate and analyze most of the elements of which a style is composed. The choice and use of words, the sound of them separately and in combination, the order of words, the structure of clause and sentence, the use of figures of speech and thought; all these can be analyzed. But the final secret lies not in them but in the way they are used and blended and related to the thought. In other words, style studies must be linked to structure studies. Appraisal of Details of the Art of Writing What still remains interesting is the discussion by clever critics of certain stylistic propensities of great writers in little things, which in minor writers would be faults. One of the pedantic attempts is CRITICUS Marcel Berger Le style au microscope Paris: NRF,followed by Quatre etudes de style au microscope Paris: NRF,in- cluding Montherlant, Gide, Romains, Genevois. The conclusions which Criticus draws from his method of checking on the cor- rectness or incorrectness of minutiae, while wholly neglecting the organism of the works from which the examples are taken, would revaluate the authors on an almost absurd scale. Criticus has collected a third series, called Le style au microscope Paris: Calmann-Levy,dealing with Troyat, Sartre, Ara- gon, Maurois, Mauriac, Salacrou, Valery and other contempo- 22 Arts of Writing raries. A positive and convincing appraisal of stylistic detail comes, however, from the Belgian poet Camille MELLOY "Propos de technique litteraire," EC, IX These propos do not make the absurd attempt to correct but to discover in the authors, even unknown ones, what is for them and not for others une reussite stylistique. The Swedish critic Ernst BENDZ, doing the same type of work, comes intrinsically close to the modern scholarly tenden- cies, when in his Andre Gide et Vart d'ecrire Paris: Messageries du livre,he notes the author's typical words, such as amour, desir, tendresse, ferveur, passion, extase, vo- lupte, ivresse, fremissement, or underlines his habit of putting long adverbs before adjectives, such as "obstinement doulou- reux," "morbidement doux," or even between verbs and their objects: Bendz has done a similar study on the language of Valery Paid Valery et Vart de la prose Goteborg: Cumpert,where he picks out sentences with comments such as "Se suivent en trille gracieuse la plupart des voyelles de la langue" p. Bendz expanded recently his style studies, which in Sweden had appeared in as Nutida fransk prosakonst, under the title: Notes sur Gide, Lacretelle etc. Les Presses de la Cite, Style proper, however, is the concern of the essay on Mauriac only, pp. Camille DUD AN Le Frangais de quelques ecrivains. Etudes de style faites a Radio-Lausanne Bienne: Chandelier, char- acterizes briefly the typical expressions of twenty-six authors from Villon to Verlaine. GHYKA Sortileges du verbe Paris: Gallimard,talks about the material a good writer "should" use, stressing the suggestive character of certain words and the importance of metaphors and analogies. Then he proceeds to the types of great symphonic composition represented by Mallarme and Proust. An Englishman and a Frenchman together have selected ninety representative passages and prefaced them with pertinent remarks on style and the problem of translation in order to open the eyes of the stylistically blind: GRUNDY and Maurice THIeRY French Style through Unseens London: Such a demon- stration made by capable critics can be very illuminating since exaggerations are like a magnifying glass for looking at genuine style. This principle was brought home in two books: Lucien REFORT La caricature litteraire Paris: Ivoire,and L. DEFFOUX Le pastiche litteraire des origines a nos jours Paris: Certain faits divers are here retold in the manner of different authors. Even Marcel PROUST Pastiches et melanges Paris: NRF, did not despise this highly intelligent and artistic play. By overcharging the striking features of a particular style one can learn, besides the fun which these pastiches carry with them, exactly what is options as opposed to real style of spontaneous expression. This holds true even for the humorous exaggera- tions of Raymond GUENEAU Exercices de Style Paris: NRF, and for the popular three volume collection of the classical literary parodies by Paul REBOUX et Charles MULLER A la maniere de. Grasset,latest edition Other pastiches open the mind of the public at large to literary criticism, e. Raymond RITTER Radio-Parnasse. A la maniere de Frangois Mauriac, Leon Daudet, Francis Jammes, et oVautres Paris: The content is overstressed as compared to form in Anonymous Faux en ecriture, aux depens de Jean Paulhan, Alain, Apollinaire, etc. Here in thirty-five parodied authors the erotical element is somewhat exploited. It seems a good sign for the stylistic importance of the lit- erary parody, that "Les Pasticheurs" are treated as "auxiliaires de la critique" in Henri CLOUARD Histoire de la litterature francaise du symbolism e a nos jours, II, de a Paris: Michel,pp. Clouard's survey in- cludes among others Jean Pellerin, Le copiste indiscret, Louis Martin-Chauffier, Correspondances apocryphes, three works of Yves Gandon, Mascarades litteraires, Imageries critiques, Usage de faux and Georges Armand Masson, A la facon de. Jean Anouilh, Louis Aragon, Marcel Ayme. Collected Style Sketches of Contemporary Authors in France, Italy and Spain In a more serious fashion the art of writing of contemporary 24 Arts of Writing authors has been presented by means of short characterizations in Yves GANDON Le demon du style Paris: The book treats of Gide, Valery, Claudel, Hermant, Mau- riac, "ou la fievre du style"; Romains, Duhamel, Fargue, L. Daudet, Giraudoux, Bonnard, Carco, Dorgeles, "ou le style oral" ; Jerome and Jean Tharaud, Montherlant, "ou le style a la cra- vache" ; and Colette. A similar work of Gandon's is Cent ans de jargon ou de Vecriture artiste au style canille P.: The Italian parallel consciously based on scholarly, modern analytical principles p. It presents Panzini, Devoto, Viani, Agnoletti, Rosso "e il colore," the slow "polputo" Pea, Scoffici "e Timpressionismo," Palazzeschi; the ironical fu- turist, Linati; Savarese, Buzzio, Angelini, Del Pizzo, Landolfi, Rossi, Ortese "e la soavitudine," Cicognani "e la prosa evocativa," Moravia, Zavattini, Formigari, Trilussa, Reusi "e Taforismo," Scarfoglio, D'Annunzio, Natoli, De Robertis and Govoni "e lo splendore. So- ciedad General Espanola de Libreria, Vol. In his introduction Chabas makes a good distinction between estilo and estilizacion, una voz de falsete vol. Excluding as "voz de falsete," e. Ricardo Leon, he finds on the other hand unique personal style features in Gabriel Mir6, the landscape-painter with Valencian semantics; Antonio Machado, the poet of a style "desnudo, japones, de ensueno, clasico" ; Juan Ramon Jimenez, poet of "vibraciones que dan eternidad a su palabra"; Manuel Machado, stylist of "nuevos oleos liricos que copian los originales" ; and other traits appearing in Valle Inclan, Azorin, Baroja, Unamuno, Ortega y Gasset, Perez de Ayala, Ramon Gomez de la Serna, Benavente, Marquina, Arniches, Gregorio Martinez Sierra. Eugenio D'ORS Estilos de Pensar Madrid: Ediciones espaiiolas, is disillusioning be- cause he offers only generalities on Menendez y Pelayo, Juan Maragall, Luis Vives, San Juan de la Cruz and Ricardo Le6n. The same must be said for Julien BENDA Du Style d'Idees Paris: Gallimard,which is rather an analysis of philosophical thought in certain writers. CHAPTER III Stylistic Comparison of Texts A. Different Drafts The transition from any appraisal of literary art to the truly philological and scientific approach is reached as soon as the comparative method is used. If comparative results are not fundamentally philological, they are at least an objective means of appraising the stylistic usage of words and locutions. With reference to this method, one should quote paradigmatically a monograph by Franqois VINCENT Le travail du style chez Saint Frangois de Sales Paris: Abbe Vincent compares the style of the Introduction a la vie devote in its final edition of with the first one ofand shows how the devout humanist was changing his almost flamboyant style into a preclassical style through a more rigid concept of the logical-mental elements, by introducing a new rhythm into a prose with "finales habilement bouclees et bien tombantes," and finally, by a more intense poetization of the original images through a transformation of certain similes into condensed meta- phors. The author points out that the stylistic consciousness of the seventeenth century was already present in St. Francis de Sales in the sense of the poignant phrase of Mme. Thus Vincent, on the basis of a stylistic comparison alone, bestows on St. Francis de Sales the honor of having per- fected the classic numerus before Guez de Balzac. Joseph COPPIN Etude sur la grammaire et le vocabulaire de Montaigne d'apres les variantes des 'Essais' Lille: Facultes catholiques,discovers by comparison the aim of Mon- taigne's style, "Pexpressivite des mots choisis. GLOTZ Les variantes des Contemplations, Diss. Caen,conversely has attained aesthetic-psychological re- sults from the comparison of V. Hugo's variants, which he has supplemented in a complementary thesis Essai sur la psychologie des Contemplations Paris: Glotz infers from the relation between the final form and the first and second, on the basis of cancelations and correc- tions, certain principles about the process of creation in V. Options intelligence is reflected by the antithetical and symmetrical sense of order stronger than Hugo's lyrical nebulosity. It may be that Glotz is going a little too far in formulating such far-reaching conclusions about the poet's evolution as to designate emphatically the year to be the turning point from Romanticism to Realism. Using the variants of V. Hugo also, Artur FRANZ Aus Victor Hugos Werkstatt GBRP, supplements no. Franz has given other instances of the same type of investigation, e. Hugo," GRM, XIII, namely "A propos d'Horace" from Contempla- tions I, no. He was preceded by Hanns HEISS "Die Varianten von V. Hugos 'Odes et ballades'," ZFS, XL, and followed by Ferdinand FLUTRE "Eclaircis- sements sur les 'Feuilles d'automne'," RHLF, XXXIV Leon PIERRE-QUINT Comment travaillait Proust Paris: Cahiers libres,limits himself to comparing some passages of the great novelist's work as they appeared for the first time in NRF with the definitive version that Proust gave them in book form. He also adds some introductory observations with the suggestion that if the reader himself collaborates when examining this study, the variants will options help him "remonter a la source mysterieuse du genie" p. A similar approach to Marcel Proust can be found in D. ADELSON "Proust's Principe and Later Styles: A Textual Com- parison," RR, XXIV This type of study can be done with intricate refinement. FEUGfiRE "Le gout de Ronsard d'apres les variantes des Amours de ," MH,shows the wavering of Ronsard's Different Drafts 27 taste as to clarity, elegance, simplicity, harmony, etc. The result of Pierre JOURDA "Les corrections de 'La Chartreuse de Panne'," RHLF, XLII, comes from almost mathematical tabula- tions: Si Ton voit, ici et la, l'ecrivain brillanter son style, semer des ad- jectifs, ajouter quelques touches pittoresques, on constate surtout qu'il a cherche une clarte, une precision toujours plus grandes. Later variants do not necessarily constitute a development toward better art, as is principe by G. GUIS AN "L'evolu- tion de Tart. A particular piquancy is inherent in the style corrections of a style theoretician, as shown by H. GUYOT "Buffon: Les variantes du discours sur le style," RHLF, XXX The descriptions of nature, as well as of the armies, the elephants, and the chieftains, offer the same precise conclusions as to Flau- bert's growing perfection in picturesqueness, rhythm, and melo- diousness all combined, but seem slightly detrimental to the original clarity. A study of variants from different viewpoints precedes the edition of the first cast of V. Hugo's novel Les Miserables: Gustave SIMON Les miseres. Premiere version des Miserables Paris: DE- MOREST "Les suppressions dans le texte de Mme. Bovary," MH,is a marvelous inventory of original vir- tuoso passages of description sacrificed to a more mature taste. Flauberts Tentation de Saint An- toine. Margaret GILMAN "L'Albatros again," RR f XLI, concerned with the problem of the chronology of Les Fleurs du 28 Stylistic Comparison of Texts mal, compares L'Albatros with he Cygne to the effect of showing the essential development of Baudelaire in the replacement of the didactic comparison by the poetic fusion of imagery. In spite of its misleading title, Hasye COOPERMAN The Aesthetics of Stephane Mallarme New York: Coffern Press,discusses variants as the changes which result "from the effort of the intellect to filter off all that was emotional and super- fluous" p. A fine study of emendations in the Spanish field is Edward M. WILSON "Sobre la Canci6n a las ruinas de Italica de Rodrigo Caro," RFE, XXIII, where it is demon- strated how in the three subsequent manuscripts the classical elements are brought increasingly to the fore. Miguel RO- MERA-NAVARRO "Un aspecto del estilo en El Heroe," HR, XI, discovers that Gracian subtracts and adds at the same time in his later manuscripts, but that by doing so, he seems more disturbed with his culteranisms than with his conceptisms. This study was continued on a broader basis in Romera-Navarro's Estudio del autografo de 'El Heroe' de Gracian. Ortografia, correcciones y estilo Ma- drid: RFE Anejo XXXV, This book represents pains- taking investigations. The motives for the cor- rection are never figures of speech as such, but only the care for appropriateness, precision, clarity, vigor, variety, liveliness, con- cision, equilibrium, elegance. Thus all types of expression, par- ticularly the Gongoristic hyperbaton, were eligible for stylistic improvement. In the Italian area there is a very fine study of variants con- cerning the Macaronic Latin: CORDlE "Le quattro redazioni del 'Baldus' di Teofilo Folengo," MAST, LXVIII 36estratto CONTINI Saggio d'un commento del Petrarca volgare Firenze,hints at aesthetic serija moral reasons for Petrarch's corrections. In general Petrarca Sources 29 goes from a rhetorical to a lyrical concept, or a compromise be- tween both, before he marks his respective, corrected passage with Hoc placet. Ma che fanno i colori dinanzi al cieco 2. Ma non pur mo' cominci ad esser cieco 3. Ma canto al sordo e color mostro al cieco 4. Ma canto al sordo e faccio lume al cieco. Mario FUBINI "II Petrarca artefice" in his Studi sulla letteratura del Rinascimento Firenze: Sansoni, shows by the comparison of two drafts of a Petrarchan sonnet Nel tempo lasso de la notte, quando and Tutto V dl piango; e poi la notte quando how, out of two Dante reminiscences, can grow an entirely original poem which nobody would suspect to be "literature" and not life. Again Principe FUBINI "Le quattro redazioni dei 'Ricordi' del Guicciardini," lb. Sources The stylistic investigation of poetical sources has undergone a deep transformation. While studies of the older type proceeded in this field without any aesthetic inspiration, and made a plagi- arist out of every later poet, the modern method of investigation makes use of the minute examination of sources only in order to evaluate the originality of a later poet despite his sources and to affirm the continuous enrichment of the stylistic treasures of speech. The virtuoso language of a rhetorical and lyrical author like Chateaubriand proved to be a fertile subject for source studies by Blaise BRIOD Uhomerisme de Chateau- briand Paris: Champion,C. HART Chateau- briand and Homer, JHS, XIL. NAYLOR Chateaubriand and Vergil, JHS, XVIIIand CHANDLER B. BEALL Chateaubriand et Le Tasse, JHS, XXIV Miodrag IBROVAC Jose Maria de Heredia. Les sources des Trophees Serija Presses franchises,dedi- cated to each poem a study on its probable sources, in view of the literary patrimony present in the poet's consciousness. The art 30 Stylistic Comparison of Texts of Maupassant, which never found a direct analyzer, has been elucidated in the comparative way by Crystal Ray ROSS Le conteur americain 0. Henry et Vart de Maupassant, Diss. Ross is convinced that O. Henry learned from Maupassant a whole series of narrative devices: In view of the different forms of literary portraits and the questions of priority and imitation in seven- teenth century France, J. VIANEY "Moliere, modele de la Bruyere dans Tart du portrait," in Melanges Louis Arnould Paris, ascertains Moliere's "scene des portraits" in Le Misanthrope as the main source for La Bruyere's Carac- teres, although La Bruyere declares himself indebted only to Theophrastus. It would be a methodologically sound basis not to consider as style studies any vague source suggestions. The source must show unique striking features as a formal principle which pro- duces statable, formal variations in its imitation. TORREY "Rousseau's Use of the Sunrise Theme," RR, XXXII, has attempted to explain descriptive details of this topic by showing that Rousseau did not stylize directly observed nature, but that he used literary patterns, namely his predecessors, Diderot and Albrecht von Haller, Thus, sometimes it is the manner of treatment of the same subject which makes us understand the stylistic influence of one author on another. Different scholars have been interested in Ariosto's influence on the French poet Philippe Desportes; they are: Jacques LAVAUD - Les imitations de VArioste par Philippe Desportes Paris: Droz,A. Droz,and Alice CAMERON "Desportes and Ari- osto, Additional Sources in the Orlando and the Liriche," MLN, Lff. Cameron finds fault with Desportes' over-clarifica- tion p. Presses Sources 31 Modernes,in which he found that the misunderstood beau of Ariosto was turned into a sentimental joli in France. A great deal of stylistic material can be found in a similar work by Chandler B. BE ALL Le Tasse en France Oregon Univ. The profound investigation of the stylistic relation of an author to his principal sources can offer most tangible results which are far from being hasty realizations. This has been clearly shown by N. CACUDI La Fontaine, imitateur de Boccace, Diss. Besangon Bari,where by means of com- parison of twenty-one Contes by La Fontaine with twenty-one Novelle by Boccaccio, perspectives are attained on the individual style as well as on that of race, epoch and country. Source and imitation must not belong to different literatures however. Charles DeMYAN "Un exemple de l'adaptation originale de Stendhal dans 'Les Cenci'. He does a similar study with "L'adaptation originale de Stendhal dans 'L'Abbesse de Castro'," Divan Juillet see also no. The investigation of the sources may also include more subtle suggestions going beyond binaires philological comparison of texts. Helmut HATZFELD "Don Quijote und Madame Bo- vary," IPh, III;has made clear that the French author imitated the Spaniard in his fusion of the char- acters with the cultural background, the combination of empathy and criticism, the symphonic presentation, the creation of an atmosphere by exterior details, and the raising of description to vision by an impressionistic technique in composition and style, A similar study was the concern of Albert PAUPHILET "Ronsard a la maniere du Roman de la Rose," MH,where a single theme Bel Accueil invited the imitator to wonderful, free variations. Image, Influence and Sensibility," YFS, II, that the unperceived "stylistic influences, not the evident ones, must be analyzed. Fernand DESONAY Le Grand Meaulnes a" Alain Foumier, Essai de Commentaire psychologique et litteraire Bruxelles: Edition des Artistes, had the ingenious idea of tracing back the single elements of the famous novel to decisive passages in Fournier's correspondence, which elucidate details such as his preference for sea and music metaphors, the language of the peasants, the motifs of "la petite fille," of "la jeune options ideale" fit for a castle, and of "la revelation d'un monde nouveau" taken from the then recent aviation. Finally there is in this cor- respondence Fournier's whole poetics on the roman-reve, its realism, its sensibility and their insertion into life, and the stress on atmosphere inherent in the single hours of the day. Leo SPITZER "La genese d'une poesie de Paul Va- lery," Re, II-III, compares stylistically, in a superior approach, Paul Valery's early poem, Assise la fileuse, with its sources: Precise information lies hidden under the vague title of a comprehensive study of D. KRESS "The Weight of French Parnassian Influence in the Modernistic Poetry of Manuel Gutierre Najera," RLC, XVII; not the genuine pessimism, but entire lines, expressions, epithets, musical word arrangements as found in Leconte de Lisle, Francois Cop- pee and Verlaine are imitated in Naj era's poetry. DAmaso ALONSO "Aquella arpa de Becquer," CyR t XXVII, points out how originality is maintained by Becquer in the imitation of motifs of Heinrich Heine as well as in the imitation of texts, e. Je suis dans un salon comme line mandoline Oubliee serija passant sur le bord d'un coussin, etc. As a master of source studies, Damaso ALONSO La poesia de San Juan de la Cruz Madrid: Consejo,has worked out to what extent the poems of this Saint, so highly original, are definitely rooted in the Canticle of Canticles, in Spanish folk poetry and in Garcilaso de la Vega, but less directly than indirectly through the spiritual travesty of the eglogvs by Sebastian de Cordoba see also nos. Geoffrey BRERETON, in a similar way, offered Quelques pre- cisions sur les sources d'Espronceda Paris: MARf A Rosa LIDA "Para las f uentes de Quevedo," RFH, I, established a subtle difference between the more immediate and the more remote sources in an author; for instance, Camoes is a precise source, the so-called Greek An- thology a remote source, for Quevedo. Carlos CLAVERf A "Flaubert y La Regenta," in his Cinco estudios de literatura espanola moderna Salamanca: Colegio trilingue, underlines that Clarin's common interest with Flaubert in overcoming the bourgeois romanticism entirely removes from him the brand of a slavelike imitation of Madame Bovary, the more so because a transposition of the milieu certainly belongs to original creation. The same holds true for the relation Bovary: O Primo Basilio, as was made plain by Castelo Branco CHAVES "A influencia de Gustavo Flaubert na estetica de Eca de Queiroz," RLC, XVIIIff. McLEAN "Poems to the Rainbow by Campbell and Heredia," H, XVIII, states the metrical differences between source and imitation. Quatrains of iambic tetrameters and trimeters alternating ab ab, are replaced by 8-line stanzas, each containing an average of 8 syllables, with the pattern abbe decc. Gerhard BUCK "Written in Imitation of the Manner of Cer- vantes," GRM, XXIX, goes too little into detail to prove the originality of Fielding in Joseph Andrews, despite his conscious imitation of the Don Quijote. The modest results of source studies were characterized by DAmaso ALONSO "La caza de amor es de altaneria. Sobre los precedentes 34 Stylistic Comparison of Texts de una poesia de San Juan de la Cruz," BAE, XXVI Con toscos instrumentos nos aproximamos a una tierna misteriosa criatura: Damaso Alonso "Lope despojado por Marino," RFE, XXXIII; ;opens quite new horizons by showing that marinism is based on Spanish and even Lopesque style elements. The artistic relation between San Francesco's Cantico del Sole and its biblical sources, Psalm and the Hymn of Daniel, has been carefully established, as to form and movement, by J. To observe how Ariosto digested and used Virgil was the concern of P. ROCCA Riflessi delle Georgiche nel Furioso Bologna: It is interesting to know how the lyrical genius of Camoes, though opposed to the rank and file of the sixteenth century Petrarchists, achieved an artistic recast of Petrarch's motifs ; for that reason Camillo GUERRIERI explained La trasfigurazione di motivi petrarcheschi, on pp. Amado ALONSO "Estilistica de las fuentes literarias: Ruben Dario y Miguel Angel," N Buenos Aires, 25 de septiembre de shows Ruben Dario's "Lo fatal," expression of the modern pathological fear of death, to be Michelangelo's "Caro m'e '1 sonno e piu l'esser di sasso," expression of a Renaissance-scher- zando, with a quite different psychology. Amado Alonso comes to the conclusion that a reasonable imitation as opposed to pla- giarism leads the imitating poet to reveal his most intimate originality. Stylistically Related Topics Style investigation, like ordinary philology, tries to find out with artistic implications a relation between two texts, one of which does not depend directly on the other, but is related to it rather through a common source, remote affinity, or cultural en- vironment. In this sense Donald F. BROWN 'Two Naturalistic Versions of Genesis," MLN, LII, has Related Topics 35 pointed out that in two different ways Zola's Faute de Vabbe Mouret and Pardo Bazan's Madre naturaleza use the same source story of Adam, Eve and the Serpent, binaires a traceable depend- ence, beyond this source, of the Spanish work on the French, with the aesthetical implication that Pardo Bazan has outdone Zola none the less. A particular type, two different stylistic variations of the same theme in poetry and prose is the problem of G. STREIT Die Doppelmotive in Baudelaires Fleurs du mat und Petits poemes en prose Strasbourg: Isidore SILVER "Did Du Bellay know Pindar? This discovery encouraged Silver to establish other direct stylistic sources for Du Bellay, such as Homer, Horace, and Theocritus, together with theoretical con- siderations in his article "Du Bellay and Hellenic Poetry. A Cursory View," PMLA, LX; ; An old suspicion was verified by Eunice Joiner GATES "Gongora and Calderon," HR, V, name- ly that Calderon is not only a self-made literary Churriguera, but a pupil and obedient imitator of Gongora. As far as the preacher "Paravicino, the Gongoristic Poet," MLR, XXXIII, is concerned, Eunice Joiner Gates again has seen the complexity of such problems. Certainly it was the preacher who imitated the poet in word order, themes, phrase- ology, images, and stock constructions. Paravicino, thus equipped, however, can express his thanks to El Greco for having painted his picture in a more elegant Gongoristic style than Gon- gora himself used for his own picture at a later date. Damaso ALONSO "La supuesta imitacion por Gongora de la fa- bula de Acis y Galatea," RFE, XIX, proves that not the Spaniard Carrillo but Ovid himself was the inspiration of Gongora. Manuel GarcIa BLANCO "La originalidad del Libro de Apolonio," R1E, III, checks on the sources cf this poem and its other Romance versions to show the originality of its mester de clerecia-ipsittem and its adapta- tion to the Spanish sensibility. A stylistic-philosophical study of three thematic parallels and stylistic contrasts is Leo SPIT- ZER "Three Poems on Ecstasy John Donne, St. John 36 Stylistic Comparison of Texts of the Cross, Richard Wagner ," in A Method of Interpreting Literature Northampton: Smith College, Source comparisons on a large scale between dramas or novels should be confined to the limbo of the "Stilforschung. Jose Francisco GATTI "Moratin y Marivaux," RFH, III, where L'ecole des meres is shown to be the source of El si de las ninas, or Hermann WILLERS Le diable boiteux Le Sage El diablo cojuelo GuevaraDiss. Rostock,belong to this marginal realm. The latter comparative problem was approached, how- ever, in truly stylistic fashion by G. CIROT "A propos du Diablo cojuelo. Apergus de stylistique comparee," BH, XLVI Cirot tries to "locate" Guevara's descriptions by parallelizing them with similar ones from Cervantes, Quevedo, Gracian, Lilian and Zavaleta. The metamorphosis of literary topics or motifs see also chapter VIII from Greco-Roman antiquity in Hispanic lyric poetry is a specialty of MarIa Rosa LIDA "El ruiseiior de las Georgicas y su influencia en la lirica espariola de la edad de oro," VKR, XI, and "Transmisi6n y recreacion de temas grecolatinos en la poesia lirica espanola," RFH, I But she is an even "purer" style-investiga- tor when she works on forms independent of thematic implica- tions. Thus she found out that the famous clause at the begin- ning of Don Quijote "De cuyo nombre no quiero acor- darme," RFH, I, has nothing to do with un- pleasant prison reminiscences of Cervantes, but is an old formula handed down from Herodotus through the centuries and is des- tined, it should be added, to give a certain rhythm to the sentence. Psychological Similarities and Contrasts Reflected in Style The "source" is often negligible or non-existent if psychologi- cal affinities are at issue. Racine's artistic indebtedness to Euripides, Seneca, Ovid and others, in spite of his own originality due to a quite different psychology, has been clarified in many details by C. MtlLLER Die 'Phadra' Racines, Quel- lenstudien und Auseinandersetzung mit der bisherigen Kritik, Diss. The Tristan-theme as nationally treated in structure and style by an Old French and a Middle High Ger- Psychological Similarities 37 man poet has been elucidated by A. Ihre konstruktiven Sprachformen Mun- chen: Hueber,and again by Magda HEIMERLE Gottfried und Thomas Frankfurt: The same was done for the Old French and German Yvain by Herbert DRUBE Hartmann und Chretien Miinster: Aschen- dorff,and in a superior way, though overstressing the national style differences, by Kurt Herbert HALBACH Franzosentum und Deutschtum in hbfischer Dichtung der Stau- ferzeit. The different treatment options solitude by two great poets was analyzed in Ulrich LEO "Zwei Einsamkeiten. Leo- pardls 'L'infinito' und Lamartines 'L'Isolement'," AR, XVI The theme of the lover's abandonment as treated in the three famous French romantic poems by Lamar- tine, V. A less inspiring, rather clumsy and annoying comparative study of themes, strophes, verses and expression types in two late medieval contemporaries is J. SCHILPE- ROORT Guillaume de Machaut et Christine de Pisan, Diss. On the style differences between Racine and Goethe we have two studies: MERIAN-GENAST "Racine und Goethe," ASNS, CLXVIII. Both authors establish fundamen- tal but alas! Spitzer sees in Racine's style the expression of passion, in Goethe's that of moderation ; Merian-Genast finds in Racine a style of sociability, in Goethe a style of personality. Adolf von GROLMANN Deutscher und franzosischer 'art poetique' Baden-Baden: Knaeps,compared in banal fashion the individual romantic procedure of the German writers in general with the social-classical patterns of the French. McCLAIN "Kleist and Moliere as Comic Writ- ers," GR, XXIV, opposes Moliere as the "greater master of his art by keeping within the bounds of the comic" to 38 Stylistic Comparison of Texts the "inherently tragic" Kleist. ERNOUT "Amphi- tryon dans Plaute et dans Moliere," Neo, XXXIII, opposes the French jeux d'esprit to the Latin's simplicite rude. Jose Manuel BLECUA "Algunos aspectos del Laber- into," Ca, I, compares this work of Juan de Mena with works of other contemporaries and with Gongora's Soledades to bring out the unique content-form relations and the definite pre-baroque character of the Laberinto. The stylistic differences between the treatment of the same subject matter by a Spanish and a French Mystic Santa Teresa and Marie de l'lncarnation have been explained by psychological, educational, national, epochal and idiomatic differences, in Helmut HATZ- FELD "Klassische Frauenmystik in Spanien und Frankreich," SF, 1. Band Zdislas MILNER "Gongora et Mallarme," EN, I, finds a non-historic affinity between the two authors. He un- derscores in this first essay only their common stylistic features, their preference for the concrete in figures of speech, vocabulary and paraphrases, with the syntactical consequence that the verb is replaced by the adjective, and that the decisive word is iso- lated by means of inversions. The domination of the substantive is here further enhanced by means of hyperbole and the use of the epithet. Description is superseded by the condensed image, and the narrative element is eliminated by a series of metamor- phoses. The sentence is an arabesque with well calculated si- lences and sensations. In a second attempt, Zdislas MILNER "Gongora y Mallarme. El conocimiento de lo absoluto por medio de las palabras," FHC, III, repeats his statements of with more pretentious formulas: Este continuo esfuerzo tendiente a despejar de toda cosa la realidad material instable, y esta larga frase en arabesco es lo que con- stituye el fondo comun de Gongora options Mallarme p. Gabriel PRADAL-RODRi'GUEZ "La tecnica poetica y el caso Gongora-Mallarme," CL, II, thinks that Gongora has discovered the aesthetic pattern for pure poetry which was simply rediscovered by Mallarme. A defense of the independence of the contemporary Venezue- Reconstruction of Lost Texts 39 Ian writer, Romulo Gallego, against the reproach of his having imitated the Columbian writer, Jose Eustacio Rivera, was splendidly made with the comparative stylistic method by Ulrich LEO "Dona Barbara y La Voragine," U 7 principe Julio de Rafael LAPESA "La Jerusalen del Tasso y la de Lope de Vega," BAE y XXV, sees in Tasso the last example of refined Aristotelian poetics, equilibrium and "gravita riposata," whereas he considers Lope the destroyer of this equilibrium by "el gesto espectacular," "bravatas," "rodo- montadas," "ejemplaridades hiperbolicas" and "descompostura. Kate BRDDT "Confronto do ponto de vista da 'ideia' e do 'estilo' entre o conto 'Mae' de 'Os meus Amores' Trindade Coelho e o conto 'Mater Dolorosa' de 'A cidade do vicio' Fialho de Almeida ," B, X, from an aesthetic-psycho- logical angle, distinguishes in the style of Coelho the simple expression of a feminine sensibility; in the style of Fialho de Almeida, a pomposity which is striking for a naturalist. Reconstruction of Lost Texts by Stylistic Criteria The method of reconstruction of lost medieval texts, so im- pressively wielded by Ramon Menendez Pidal, becomes style in- vestigation as soon as the philologist does not reconstruct words and lines, but characters and actions of a fragment. Structure and details of extant works of the same poet are supposed to reveal his categorical and ne varietur disposition of any artistic material. This is the way in which the archeologist provides mutilated statues with arms and legs. Admitting these premises as correct, we may call excellent a study concerned with the stylistic reconstruction of Chretien de Troyes' fragment Perceval from the style scheme of the other preserved works: He was followed in the Hispanic medieval field by Isabel, Freiin von DYHERRN Stilkritische Untersuchung und Ver- such einer Rekonstruktion des Poema de Ferndn Gonzalez, Diss. She vindicates the two clear-cut stylistic methods, of the Poema and of the Chronicle, as sufficient to reconstruct the lost original epic. The boldest at- 40 Stylistic Comparison of Texts tempt in stylistic reconstruction is A. WITTE "Der Aufbau der altesten Tristandichtungen," ZDA, LXX Witte tries to decide that Tristan versions to be good ones must coincide with the diptych structure of the original form of the legend. This vindication of structure excludes a ternary principle. The diptych actually seems best preserved in the fragments of Thomas of Bretagne. The jongleur interpola- tions of Beroul and Eilhard have obscured the situation, and the scholars' search for a tripartite scheme in Gottfried has been entirely meaningless. Adaptations and Translations A final task of comparative style-philology is the checking on adaptations and translations from an aesthetical viewpoint, but with a more profound delving into the categorical differences between the original and its rendition into another language. Maria LtJCKER Die franzosischen Psalmeniibersetz- ungen des Jahrhunderts als Ausdruck der Zeit, Diss. Bonn,has shown that the individual differences of the transla- tors of the psalter during the enlightenment period are negligible if compared with the rationalistic wording which prevails every- where in contradistinction to the text of the Vulgate. Students of Professor Raymond Lebegue Sorbonne prepare such psalter studies for earlier centuries. Gianna TOSI La lingua dei Fioretti di San Francesco, Diss. She has found how the genius of the Italian vernacular comes to its birthright, when absolutus a culpa appears as e as- soluto che fu dalla colpa ; magnolia as grandi cose ; ostenditur as si die a intendere. That means, as the author points out, that the abstract becomes concrete, a meditation becomes a scene, a thought a talk, a feeling a sight, an implication a slight hint, be- cause complicated Latin clauses reappear as gerunds, pale terms as savory expressions, passivity as a visualized action. Translations of idiomatic poetry into another idiom by a congenial poetic mind can offer materials for worth-while stylis- tic studies. DOUGLAS "Translations English, Spanish, Italian, German of P. Valery's 'Le cimetiere marin', ,r Adaptations and Translations 41 MLQ, VII As far as prose is concerned there is a similar study by Joachim ABRAHAMS "Diderot, Franzosisch und Deutsch," RF, LII, andwith profound introductory remarks on the stylistic problem of translations. Certain rhythmical and musical problems in E. DUMeRIL Le Lied allemand et ses traductions poetiques en France Paris: Champion, reveal that there are very few lieder which are genuinely translated or adapted. For the greatest part the translations offer only "une musique verbale denuee de sens" p. An inquiry of importance, involving the trans- lator's technique as opposed to his original creations, is offered by Karl REGIUS Der Stil Marots als Vbersetzer, Diss. Joseph COPPIN Montaigne, traduc- teur de Raymond Sebond Facultes Catholiques de Lille,particularly in ch. CHAPTER IV The Language of Individual Authors Introduction The style studies par excellence are the investigations into the literary language of an author. This does not mean an inquiry into his vocabulary and syntax as such, but their artistic use as psychological expressions and structural elements in an arte- fact. With this limitation we have to exclude from our review many excellent studies on the language of a single author. Since they use the author's neologisms, metaphors and original con- structions as contributions to language la languenot as creations of an individual speech parole in the sense of De Saussure, they have only linguistic and grammatical interest. Such studies are found particularly in the French periodical, he Francais Moderne, where they are done by scholars like Guerlin de Guer, Le Bidois, Gougenheim, et al. The older, non-aesthetic type of such studies, more lexicographical and syntactical than stylistic, may be represented by a work like Alfred HUMPERS Etude sur la langue de Jean Lemaire de Beiges, Diss. GUERLIN DE GUER "La langue des ecrivains," in Ou en sont les etudes de francais, Manuel general de linguistique frangaise moderne, publie sous la direc- tion de Albert Dauzat Paris, and Charles BRUNEAU in the appendix of the new edition of serija workhave given a list of all the authors whose language has been a subject of research. We exclude from the following pages these merely linguistic studies. Dissertations coming from the school of the lexicographer Walter von Wartburg, written in Leipzig and Basel as well as in Chicago, follow for the most part the same lexicographical-syntactic trend as those of the school of Charles Bruneau, e. Linton Cook STEVENS La langue de Brantome Paris: Nizet et Bastard, Of course, there are some remarks on style in the aesthetical sense too. Whereas Fritz HASCHKE "Die Sprache Richelieus nach seinem Brief wechsel," LRS, Abt. In brief, as soon as such studies reveal the slightest aesthetical concern with the uniqueness of an individual literary language, they result in literary style studies. The particular and original patterns followed by writers and poets in choosing and combin- ing different linguistic expressions and forms in new and original stylistic compounds will be the main interest of the studies to be reviewed here. These studies contributed by scholars of differ- ent countries embrace the following authors: Chretien de Troyes, Gautier d'Arras, Villehardouin, Joinville, Marco Polo, Philippe de Commynes, Eustache Deschamps, Christine de Pisan, les Rhetoriqueurs, Rabelais, Calvin, Clement Marot, Maurice Sceve, Agrippa d'Aubigne, Montaigne, Saint Amant, Saint Pierre Fou- rier, St. Francois de Sales, Guez de Balzac, Rotrou, Corneille, Richelieu, Moliere, Pascal, La Fontaine, Racine, Bossuet, Le Due de Saint-Simon, Perrault, Fontenelle, Montesquieu, Hamilton, Voltaire, J. Rousseau, Marmontel, Chateaubriand, George Sand, Leconte de Lisle, Theophile Gautier, Merimee, Maurice de Guerin, Eugenie de Guerin, Stendhal, Honore de Balzac, Michelet, Flaubert, les Goncourt, Zola, Daudet, Maupassant, Huysmans, Bloy, Paul Adam, Anatole France, P. Courier, Lemonnier, Verhaeren, Mallarme, Barres, E. All these studies, some extensive, some more sketchy, concern artistically used language of writers or works and lit- 44 The Language of Individual Authors erary schools without transcending the domain of language, i. An attempt will be made to present the material according to the development of the meth- ods in stylistic investigation and according to schools and groups of investigators in the different countries. Earlier and Arbitrary Attempts at Style Investigation, mainly in France This chapter will consider first some older, isolated pioneer studies. Remarks will include the advantages of the different methods and their limitation to single works or their extension to groups of authors. The different Romanic literatures will be kept apart only binaires far as feasible and possible under the method- ological angle of approach which has been chosen as the primary viewpoint. A landmark in breaking away from the merely "syntactical" presentation of the style of an author is Lazare SAINEAN La langue de Rabelais, 2 vols. Sainean, primarily interested in an etymological and fac- tual interpretation of the rather obscure lexicon and idiomatic forms of Rabelais, also tried to get at the psyche and mental attitudes of the author. Embracing "les profondeurs de la pensee rabelaisienne dans la diversite infinie de ses formes ex- pressives" II, p. Lucien REFORT Essai d' introduction a une etude lexicologique de Michelet Paris: Champion,tries in a psychological manner still somewhat clumsy, to derive the char- acteristics of Michelet's vocabulary from his idearium and in- clinations. Thus his numerous nomina agentis and verba facti- tiva find an explanation in his active liberalism; his arbitrary semantics, in his willful personality. Pierre ADAM La langue du Due de Saint-Simon. Le vocabulaire et les images Nancy,particularly the last chapter XV: Jouve,its antecessor by four years, the linking elements between form and substance are still very weakly established. The idiomatic usages of Daudet are scrupulously listed on pages, so that the book has value as an inventory for "Mots d'emprunt," "Creations nouvelles, , "Mots affectionnes," "Struc- ture et rhythme des phrases," "Prosopopees et personifications," "Metaphores et comparaisons. VINCENT La langue et le style rustiques de George Sand dans les romans champetres Paris: Champion,looks only for the "vocabulaire berrichon" in general, Alexis FRANCOIS "Sur une particularite de la langue de Flaubert," ML,deals profoundly with the stylistic im- plications of "verbes transitifs conjugues sous forme prono- minale: Tar moments ils s'echangeaient une parole'," and "Verbes intransitifs a conjugaison pronominale preferes: Marcel PROUST "A propos du style de Flaubert," Chroniques Paris: Gallimard, in a more syn- thetical approach, denies Flaubert the quality of a metaphorical style which, however, seems richly compensated by his new and personal use of all the narrative tenses, particularly the im- perfect in the style indirect libre: Guez de Balzac et la prose franqaise, Contribution a V etude de la langue et du style pendant la pre- miere moitie du XVIIe siecle Paris: Picard,is a work on a large stylistic scale. It describes and evaluates with pre- cision the stylistic realizations of one of the founders of clas- sical French prose. The work does not stress Balzac's person- ality but an ideal envisioned as the raison d'etre for those first linguistic foundations of classical mitigation. The reason why only an inventory, however interesting, is given by M. SOURIAU "La langue de Voltaire d'apres sa correspondance," RHLF, XXVII; ;is that the approach, with the aid of ready-made rhetorical patterns, makes the psychological interpretation impossible. The French school up to Bruneau and Cressot is still working in this fashion even within the modern periods. These investigators of statistically enumerated figures of speech may be considered first explorers who trace a reliable stylistic atlas of the linguistic particularities of an author, leaving to others serija psychological-aesthetic refinement of interpretation. After the sweeping article by G. LAMARCHE "La plenitude du style dans Saint Frangois de Sales," RDo Junethere will be appreciation for the good material oiiered by Ch. GUERLIN DE GUER in "La langue et le style de Saint Francois de Sales," RHPH, II He ob- serves and lists word groupings of the Saint: But Guerlin principe Guer stops at his statistics. ROSTAING "La langue de P. Courier," FM, VIIIG4, anddiscusser Courier's vocabulary with its many borrowings from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, including certain points of phraseology and syntax: Thelma FOGELBERG La langue et le style de Paul Adam, These Paris: Droz,observes as typical in this author the "Alliance de mots extraordinaires," "Verbes a sujet impersonnel," and a great many different nominal constructions. Options critic also stresses the violent type of landscape-presenta- tion, and that curious impressionism interpreted as psychological when adjectives are replaced by substantives: Uoncle Augustin arrivait dans Vor de son uniforme p. But all these ob- servations remain membra disjecta and are not reduced to a structural unity. Albert DAUZAT "Le style de Ga- briel Faure," FM, III, is a rather wholesale deal- The German School 47 ing with the "classique evolue et adapte" as it occurs in the Pay sages litter aires of this delicate modern author. Thus the older method, particularly in favor with the con- servative Binaires, still continues to consider a style study an in- vestigation of a text from the viewpoint of its deviation from the common and generally adopted vocabulary, syntax, idiomatic expressions and frozen metaphors of a language, without prob- ing into artistic meaning, structure and psychology. This method inherited from classical philology, pedantic though it may be, furnishes by all means the most solid account which may be given of style features present in a literary work. The con- servative French method demonstrates that even contemporary styles and the manner of their analysis partake of the tradition of Latin theories from which the style of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the Baroque developed almost exclusively. This has been brought home most convincingly also by Ernst Robert CURTIUS binaires Eiiropaische Literatur und Lateinisches Binaires telalter Bern: Francke,single chapters of which will be mentioned later see nos. The German School around Vossler and Spitzer The century-old type of rhetorical analysis had crept from classical philology into the modern language dissertations of German and English universities. WHITELEY Etude sur la langue et le style de Leconte de Lisle Oxford: Hart, may still stand as an example. But after World War I something revolutionary happened in Germany. Style was conceived, as mentioned above in chapter II, as an expres- sion of the poet, of a structural entity, the spirit of a time and the mentality of a nation. The modern German approach, which may be called phenomenological style investigation, and cer- tainly must be linked to the same trend in the philosophy of Husserl, has undertaken daring interpretations of the essential traits of artistic language. This type of work started with the theories of Karl Vossler see chapters I and II and with the practical approach of Leo SPITZER. His Studien zu Henri Barbusse Bonn: Cohen, represents a kind of psy- choanalytical method. Leo Spitzer discovered that Barbusse, in the choice of his metaphorical expressions, betrays himself 43 The Language of Individual Authors against his will as an erotic type, whatever may be the topic of his discussion. Thus the parole of an author revealed something else than the logically expressed thought. Together with Spitzer's there were some other approaches aim- ed at linking syntax with general culture and art. LOSCH Die impressionistische Syntax der Goncourt, Diss. Er- langen Nurnberg,tried to parallelize the ecriture artiste with special cases of impressionistic art ; he linked the tentative enumeration with the painter's "dosification," and new idiomatic ways of substantivation of qualificatives, with the new type of impressionistic coloring, etc. Here in stylistics the parallels of another art were used for the first time to stress the art element involved in literary language. By giving special attention to the rhythm and melodiousness of the language of an author, another horizon was opened, the domain of music. Instead of enumerating all studies of this type, Robert Brauer "Der Stilwille Merimees," AR, XIV, may stand para- digmatically as the most careful approach. But Leo Spitzer remained the Columbus of modern style analysis. He improved his own method year after year in studies spread over almost all of the Romance language periodicals, and finally collected them in Stilsprachen the second vol- ume of the work Stilstudien; the first volume, Sprachstile, is con- cerned with syntax Miinchen: Hueber,and in RomanischeStil- und Literaturstudien, 2 vols. KRA, I and II,followed by a collection of studies: Press,and A Method of Interpreting Literature Northampton, Mass.: In Stilsprachen, the oldest and purest of these collections, stress is laid on verbal aspects exclusively. Spitzer offers in brilliant fashion the styl- istic peculiarities of Charles Peguy, Jules Romains, and Marcel Proust, to quote only the most significant studies of this work where fundamental problems are stated. The study Zu Charles Peguy 's Stil pp. This style is explained as a peasant's tenacity under the par- ticular influence of an attitude called by Bergson elan vital. The reaction of an anti-aesthetic linguist to these revolutionary insights comes to the fore in Leo JORDAN "Le style de Jules Romains," RR, XXXVI SPITZER's inquiry into the style of Marcel Proust Zum Stil Marcel Prousts Stilsprachen, pp. They are full of parentheses and afterthoughts which hint at the author's world-weariness; they have an unusually high supply of words with the prefixes in and re, indicative of the irreality of a para- psychological existence and of a search for immortality in a revived and transfigured past. Spitzer's stylistic study on Proust was more systematic than the refined but more subjective appreciation of Proust given at the same time by Ernst Robert CURTIUS in Options sischer Geist im neuen Europa Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlagsan- stalt,which appeared as a monograph in French: Curtius arrived at re- sults approximating those of Spitzer, but his aim was different. He showed for instance how a series of Proustian metaphors taken from different walks of life are capable of unraveling the secret of a particular phenomenon not accessible in a direct way. Spitzer's analysis was supplemented by a special study of Proust's sentence types in all their details, by an indirect pupil, Alfons WEGENER Impressionismus und Klassizismus im Werke Marcel Prousts, Diss. The first studies of Spitzer share with the French mono- graphs on poets the desire to portray the individuality of an author, but they surpass them in the exploration of psychological and even psychoanalytical bases, which seem to provide the raison d'etre of the stylistic traits discovered in each specific case. On the other hand Spitzer almost always renounces for the explanation the panoramic view of cultural factors because 50 The Language of Individual Authors they would obscure binaires alleged immanent self-evidence of the purely stylistic and verbal element. Overdoing the psychological, Spitzer also underestimates the aesthetic problem. This sur- prising contradiction does not hinder him however, from deal- ing with questions which are in themselves highly aesthetic. Leo SPITZER "Die klassische Dampfung in Racines Stil," AR, XII,72, and KRA, I, re- veals how Racine mitigates the baroque taste of his time by using the indefinite instead of the definite article, on for nous, nous for je, si and tant with adjective instead of superlatives, the proper name instead of the personal pronoun, abstract in- stead of concrete nouns, phraseological instead of simple verbs, veiled instead of clear images, paradoxes instead of logical state- ments. An early trace of Spitzer's type of intense psychological inter- pretation of style can be found in G. Kuysmans' Sprache," ZFS, XLVII, a study which, with a programmatic intention, correlates the essential stylistic traits with fundamental psychological propensities in order to construe with them a "linguistic physiognomy," one of Rieder's terms. French Studies under the Influence of Bally and Bruneau The older French type of investigation improved by the Geneva method, sponsored by Bruneau, Dauzat and other schol- ars writing for the periodical Le Francais moderne, produced as a particularly valuable study: Marcel CRESSOT La phrase et le vocabulaire de Joris-Karl Huysmans Paris: Cressot, who heard by chance also about the German method from a Nancy librarian, makes us see the man Huysmans through his language; he shows how Huysmans expresses in- sistence and emotion by duplicating the noun by means of a pronoun in the same main sentence ; how he keeps the reader in suspense by "phrases pareilles," how he expresses enthusiasm by long epithets, and irritation by a distorted word order. The importance of this solid investigation has been made clear by W. How a fusion of the languages of the proletarians described and of the narrator describing them becomes possible through Emile Zola's stylized argot and langue vulgaire has been demonstrated by the same French Studies 51 Marcel CRESSOT "La langue de FAssommoir," FM, VIII A study on a humorous style is Maurice SCHONE "La langue de Georges de la Fouchardiere," FM, VII By stressing the use of comparisons closely related to the habitat of the persons represented, Hia LANDAU "Etude sur le style de Camille Lemonnier," FM, V, penetrates to the very stylistic center of naturistic and pantheistic visualization in this Belgian writer. Maurice SCHONE La langue de Flaubert: A propos de la correspondance, Langue ecrite et langue parlee Paris: D'Artrey,analyzes the epistolary language of Flaubert. It is a fragmentary, vulgar, and even obscene language; it has many neologisms ; it is lacking in grammatical links, full of ex- clamations, mimetisms, interjections, particularly the heins rep- resentative of all the other prises au collet; the repetitions are representative of his vulgar insistance together with the prefixa- tion and the orthographic modifications henaurme, hamour ; images and rhythm appear elaborate see no. The French have begun serija their own way to embrace psycho- logical methods in stylistics, as is evident with Mother H. Contributions aux etudes modernes de stylistique Paris: Droz,based on her La langue de Saint Pierre Fourier Paris: She investigates the aspects of individual expression in this sacred orator and letter writer of the seventeenth century, distinguishing between his natural Vosgian style and his higher stylistic aspirations fostered by his readings. It is by stylistic analysis that Mother Derreal is able to give this little-known figure a remarkable place in literary history. Pierre NARDIN La langue et le style de Jules Renard Paris: Droz,versatile in description and explanation, stresses Jules Renard's originality despite his keeping close to the French sen- tence of normal rhythm, which is strikingly broken by Renard's unusual imagery "ce papillotement d'images. Nardin, like Mother Derreal a disciple of Bruneau, although handicapped in a certain way by the preconceived stylistic-syntactical recipes in the elan necessary for an analyzer of literary style, nevertheless pene- trates Renard's art. He finds Renard torn between an inclination towards simplicity and a tendency towards preciosity, but has the artistic instinct to give in to the simple, ideal sentence of 52 The Language of Individual Authors short coordinations. As to the genesis of a sentence, then, it may be said that a skeleton is upholstered with original figures of speech. The rhythmical paragraphs are agreeable to the eye and always acceptable to the ear. II a montre qu'il n'est pas besoin d'une phrase periodique et ample pour rendre la richesse de la vie, mais que la phrase. Jacques SCHERER L'expression litteraire dans Voeuvre de Mallarme Paris: Droz, seems rather to re- turn to the older methods but "en connaissance de cause" as far as the new ones are concerned. He gives the inventory of the stylistic means of Mallarme, but makes the following program- matic restrictions: Therefore Scherer, although admittedly knowing the work of Spitzer very well, makes clear by his examples that a care- fully done descriptive stylistics may be of the same value as any type of stylistics of expression. Thanks to Scherer, it is now definitely known that the language of inspiration for Mallarme was Latin rather than English, that his vocabulary was the gen- eral and not an esoteric one, that the "rare" words in his system are few. His novelty consists in the stress on the syntactical group: He builds types of long sen- tences termed "a rallonges" and "a etages. There are also perplex- ing and ambivalent constructions in well-arranged dissymmet- ries, and various forms of repetition. Mallarme's style reveals just the opposite trends from those found by Marcel Cressot no. Mallarme's insight, that the word has no individuality if not seen in its symbiosis with other words within the sentence, is shared by modern linguists. Mouton, splendidly analyzing Proust's own Pastiches in order to detect his theoretical style tendencies, stresses anew the French Studies 53 images, rhythm, enumerations, and the language of the different characters. Following the methods of Charles Du Bos in addi- tion to those of Bruneau and Spitzer, Mouton goes from the psychological into the moral side of Proust's stylistic informa- tion, and finds that his "slow" style of refinement and preciosity, of "allongement" and prolixity, as definitely opposed to the styles of Voltaire and Tolstoy, is irrefutably the type of an "edifying" style. Jacques Gabriel CAHEN "Le vo- cabulaire de Racine," RLR, XVIsee no. He considers the influence of subject matter, characters, aesthetical implications; he distin- guishes the role of a word in the sentence, and in the verse, meter, harmony, grouping, the local color in the word chosen, and stresses the rarity of necessary archaisms and neologisms. Valery's poetical style was analyzed in masterly French fashion by the Dane Hans S0RENSEN La poesie de Paul Va- lery. Etude stylistique sur la Jeune Par que K0benhavn: He tries to apply, however, the pattern of the linguistic method of Hjelmslev to the grouping and listing of traits, motifs, qualities of vocabulary and syntax. He chooses only one of Valery's poems and links conclusively the traits analyzed therein with the work of the poet in its entirety. This book, al- though boring by its repetitions, is a high ranking analysis of the dualism of the concepts corps: The expression forms, mainly metaphorical, grappe immense for "universe," fruit de velours for "human body," culminate in the symbols etoiles for the night of the sex life, and soleil -f- cygne for a reasonable, guided life, compatible with the powers of the mind. In earlier years the French gens de lettres used to adopt for such a goal a less rigid, a more literary and playful method, which seems sometimes preferable to the "new stylistics" just discussed. Thus Gabriel DES HONS Anatole France et Jean Racine ou La cle de Fart francien Paris: Collin,and Henri BREMOND Racine et Valery Paris: Gras- set,drew the sword in defense of the eternal stylistic values of classicism. Among the different chapters of Bremond's book, the one that deserves our special attention because of its 54 The Language of Individual Principe relation to Spitzer's problems see no. Max RAPHAEL "Anmerkungen liber den Pro- sastil von Valery," DFR, IV Even the strongest philologists now seem influenced by the new French criticism of Bremond, Charles Du Bos and others. GUERLIN DE GUER "Antoine Hamilton. Sa langue et son style, etudies dans les Memoires du Comte de Gram- mont," FM, VIII, and IX, does not hide his admiration for this foreigner who writes an abso- lutely faultless French. He analyzes Hamilton's choice and po- sition of words "qui par leur place, par leur valeur relative, par leur choc et leur cliquetis animent 1'idee" ; he stresses Hamilton's artistic use of repetition and antithesis as well as his humour. With the French method of "rapprochements," Proust's style was compared to Bossuet's by Leon GUICHARD Sept etudes sur Marcel Proust Le Caire: When, in view of its rhythm, Dr. Georges Rivane would have Proust's style dependent on Proust's asthma, this thesis was immediately rejected by R. ETIEMBLE "Le style de Proust," TM, Mai,with the aid of a comparison of the subordinate clauses of Proust with those of Descartes the latter being con- ditioned by thought, not asthma. Henri WEBER Le langage poetique de Maurice Sceve dans Belie Florence: Institut francais,analyzes the style of Maurice Sceve first by the traditional approach of direct appreciation, consideration of sources, predecessors, con- temporaries and successors. Then he describes this language made up of exquisite neologisms and word formations amari- tudes, oblivion, obtenebrer, repentin ; of rich fields of abstracts for the idea of pleasure, unrest and pain ; of many concrete and sentimental adjectives combined De son opaque, argentin et cler estre ; surprising adverbs ses mains celestement blanchesdaring substantivations Le haut bien de mon vieuxunusual condensations counterbalanced by repetitions steeped in an imagery of Italian tradition, but of an original rhythm and movement. Capable de raccourcis fulgurants qui annoncent la densite du vers mallarmeen, Sceve demeure prisonnier. Gregoire explains that the stylistic tendency of using relentlessly frozen images leads to catachreses of incompatible metaphors as well as to the temptation of continuing a picture only vaguely felt. In both cases the imagery is defrosted and a cheap "poetry," caught be- tween conversation and literature, results: Bien des plaies doivent etre pansees, et la Bourse ne retrouvera pas tout de suite le sourire Les blessures causees par la baisse sont cicatrisees. It is interesting to see that one of these less aesthetic-critical, prosaic, debunking but perhaps correct appraisals, namely Charles CHASSIS Lueurs sur Mallarme Paris: NRC,is, according to an older strict universitarian, like Albert DAUZAT "La langue et le style de Mallarme," FM, XVIIIff. Charles Bruneau's stylistically informed continuation of Ferdinand Brunot, Histoire de la langue frangaise, tome X Paris: Colin,will remain a landmark. One of the most remarkable chapters, the study of Armand WEIL "La langue et le style de Chateaubriand," ib. Hugo, Musset, Gautier, Sainte-Beuve, Lamenais, Michelet, Balzac are yielding to shorter analyses. German Doctoral Dissertations on Style The Spitzerian approach to literary language was sometimes attempted by beginners who started from a preconceived model of stylistic possibilities, a prepared questionnaire, so to speak, through whose meshes dropped the most precious and unique material, which alone would have been worthy of investigation. The style in its entirety thus remained ignored. Others than Spitzer himself, however, were responsible for this situation: One may say, by prin- ciple, that the greater number of stylistic dissertations which ap- peared in the collection of the University of Minister, called Arbeiten zur Romanischen Philologie, sins in this direction. Wilhelm HUPPE Der Sprachstil Gautiers von Arras, Diss. Munster,tries to establish verbal categories for a poete courtois. Wilhelm FRIES Der Stil der Theater- stilcke Rotrous, Diss. Wiirzburg,tries to show that Rotrou's simplification of description in contradistinction to his Spanish sources leads to a pre-state of French classicism. Unfortunately Fries stops short of the distinctive verbal problems. The re- sult, of course, is extremely meager. Joseph MOUSSET Der Stil La Fontaines in seinen 'Contes,' Diss. Munster,ponders over general questions of syntax: Agnes NORDICK Der Stil der Marchen Perraults, Diss. Munster,follows a more fer- tile method by a continuous comparison of stylization of the same fairy-tale motifs by Perrault and the Grimm brothers. Magda MICHELS Der Stil Chateaubriands, Diss. Munster,lists the evident linguistic features only, such as overemphasis by duplication of words, emotional word-order, lyrical comparisons, tripartite rhythmical groups of different length, and the author's pet words revealing his whole psychology solitude, repos, paix, triste, malheur, larmes, fierte, orgueil, mysterieux, secret. The following theses maintain a similar level: Hartmut ARNDTS Der Stil Leconte de Lisles, Diss. Munster,trying to replace the more old fashioned Spain and Portugal 57 studies of this style by J. KAISER Stilstudien zu Leconte de Lisle Halle, ; Helene GUDDORF Der Stil Flauberts, Diss. Munster,modernizing, without success, the very enlightening older dissertation principe Rudolf LEHMANN Die Formelemente des Stils von Flaubert in den Romanen und Novellen, MBRP, 5, ; Charlotte HOFFMANN Der Brief stil Flau- berts in den JahrenDiss. Leipzig,concentrating on the spontaneous language of Flaubert; A. SCHULZ Die Sprachkunst Theophile Gautiers, Diss. BLANCK Anatole France als Stilkilnstler Paris: Droz,and H, GROH Der publizistische Stil des Leon Daudet, Diss. Kate ZAESKE Der Stil Marcel Prousts, Diss. Munster,with a bit more origi- nality, discovers artistic implications resulting from Proust's imitated classical recipe of "la regie des trois adjectifs," ex- tended to fundamental tripartite sentences ; she finds metaphors of "intensive life" such as le supplice du coucher, le drame de mon deshabillage, and striking color shades e. Jena,and the ergocentric centrally literary notes on Rimbaud by Julius RUETSCH "Zum Stil der Prosagedichte Arthur Rim- bauds," NS, XXXIX WOLF Der Stil der Rhetoriqueurs, Grundlagen und GrundformevGBRP, XXIXis conversely an almost irresponsible es- cape from the task of a style investigation ; pages and pages on end talk about background, apparently with the aim to define the virtuosity of the rhetoriqueurs as a true style. None the less there are some acceptable remarks, e. Spain and Portugal In the Hispanic field, the master, Ram6n MEN3NDEZ PIDAL himself, did little as far as style analysis is concerned. He ar- ranged earlier sketches in a little volume on La lengua de Cristdbal Colon, el estilo de Santa Teresa y otros estudios 58 The Language of Individual Authors sobre el siglo XVI Madrid: Whereas the language of Columbus is presented more linguistically in its mixed character out of Genoese, Portuguese and Castilian, Santa Teresa's style pp. She gives the diminutives dignity and the images a striking accent, transcending all imitations of alleged sources. But Menendez Pidal on the whole left the stylistic field to his pupils, Damaso Alonso and Amado Alonso, both of whom must be linked to the German School. Damaso ALONSO La lengua poetica de Gonyora, parte primera Madrid, ; 2nd ed. Here he continues them by demonstrating that Gongora knows the art of finding mitigated not exaggerat- ed style forms like the French classicists; he can make clever variations with a restraining formula 'A if not B. It is true that G6ngora has within the Latinisms a small group of favorite exquisite words purpura, err ante, ca- noro, nectar, etc. The anti-Gongoran critics of his own time already furnished us the secret of the fundamental laws of the individual stylistics of G6ngora: Alonso has analyzed such repetition of the exquisite, whether it be about canoro or the formula "A if not B," or about the rhythmic imitation of the Italian esdrujulos. All these forms stress the cultist conception of the world, substituting for the vanishing Spanish world power the power of a poetic form. Gongora's world empire style is the Greco-Latin speech majesty of long periods, hyperbaton, extension of almost all words through apposition, relative passages, epithets, preference for pure Latin and Greek constructions, especially ser plus the dative with the meaning of "give rise to," "serve to," "belong to"; ablatives absolute, accusatives of limitation, or Petrarchan meta- phors such as "soles" for eyes"rubies" for blood"oro" for hair"plata" for water ; wordplay, mythological allusions and grammatization of certain types of antithesis. Amado ALONSO's analysis of the language of Enrique Lar- reta "El modernismo en la 'Gloria de Don Ramiro'," Spain and Portugal 59 EE, III Buenos Aires, is a similar achievement for a contemporary style, analyzed according to Otis H. Green, HR, XIp. The historical novel, written with full archeological empathy into sixteenth century Spain, even to vocabulary and syntax, never- theless betrays the author's modern "Weltanschauung" by his critical epithets, e. It even reveals his literary education through the French real- ists, Parnassians, symbolists; his knowledge of old pictures and the staging style of the Comedie Francaise; modern psychology and Spanish folklore. Amado Alonso, with his anatomic scalpel in hand, could say concretely for this or that passage that the type is dressed according to an old cuadro, that he has gestures according to the French stage custom, and that there is a de- scription of colors as used by Monet. The sensorial impressions are shaded according to their function, the poetical nimbus is never lacking, the aristocratic attitude of the author is always present; there is an interplay of all his life interests and his erudition, brought out in a combinative style similar to that of Valle-Inclan, because sentimentality and mysterious exaltation are here fused. Of course, a language nourished by such sources is more suited to description than narration. The evocation of the past is achieved by means of modern refinement, where light is shaded by verbs like rielar, rebrillar, centellear, chispear, reverberear ; odors are classified according to their rustic, aristo- cratic, proletarian and symbolic compounds ; sounds are uttered con severa dulzura, con voz velada, vacilante, temblorosa, entre- cortada, by verbs like exclamar, vociferar, rugir, musitar, bal- bucir, modular, salmodiar, etc. The spontaneous language of the author is always checked by the language type's becoming the epic-literary genus, and by a certain degree of sixteenth century language for the historical setting. Among studies done by Amado Alonso's pupils, an analysis must be mentioned which approximates the preceding one as far as method is concerned: Raimundo LIDA "Los cuentos de Ruben Dario. Estudio preliminar," in Cuentos completos de Ruben Dario, ed. Ernesto Mejio Sanchez Mexico: Cultura economica,VII-LXVII: Dario's prose is based on a rich verbal ornamentation coming from a vivid imagination. The 60 The Language of Individual Authors sentences reach the borderline of biblical versicles, are inter- spersed with sound-plays, offer themes with variations, sym- metries, "cierta afectacion casticista," calculated elegancies, silences and abrupt conclusions, solemn double adjectives and nominal turns with abundant appositions. The compounds, though consisting of coordinated rather than subordinated clauses, are brilliant and graceful, show traces of a violent dra- matization, a type of humorous enthymema, Rabelaisian enumera- tions, skillful tensions and detentes, elements of an archaic preciosity, and leanings to gallicisms culminating in cleverly used gerunds. The work of another pupil of Amado Alonso's, Eleuterio F. TISCORNIA concerns La lengua de "Martin Fierro" Buenos Aires: Senor Tiscornia offers some remarkable chapters on style pp. A third pupil of Amado Alonso's chose the siglo de oro for his field of modern style analysis: Angel ROSENBLAT "La lengua de Cervantes" in Cervantes, published by the Uni- versidad Central, Facultad de Filosofia y Letras Caracas,
L'arnaque des options binaires un documentaire d'envoye special
L'arnaque des options binaires un documentaire d'envoye special
3 thoughts on “Options binaires principe serija na”
Recruiting, subsidizing and the double educational standard cannot exist without the knowledge and the tacit approval, at least, of the colleges and universities themselves.
Recruiting, subsidizing and the double educational standard cannot exist without the knowledge and the tacit approval, at least, of the colleges and universities themselves.
You are likely to have a bio somewhere on the Internet already.
In this publication the word conchology appeared for the first time ( 581 ).